diff --git a/published/201311/3 Ways to Access And Use Cloud Storage (SkyDrive etc.) In Linux.md b/published/201311/3 Ways to Access And Use Cloud Storage (SkyDrive etc.) In Linux.md index e1716a1cd8..8972c25a3d 100644 --- a/published/201311/3 Ways to Access And Use Cloud Storage (SkyDrive etc.) In Linux.md +++ b/published/201311/3 Ways to Access And Use Cloud Storage (SkyDrive etc.) In Linux.md @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ ![](http://main.makeuseoflimited.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/linux_accessing_cloud_ubuntu_one.jpg) -使用这种方式的明显好处就是你可以通过使用他们各自的官方应用访问你的各种云存储。目前，提供官方Linux客户端的服务提供商有[SpiderOak](1), [Dropbox](2), [Ubuntu One](3),[Copy](5)。[Ubuntu One](3)虽不出名但的确是[一个不错的云存储竞争着](4)。[Copy][5]则提供比Dropbox更多的空间，是[Dropbox的替代选择之一](6)。使用这些官方Linux客户端可以保持你的电脑与他们的服务器之间的通信，还可以让你进行属性设置，如选择性同步。 +使用这种方式的明显好处就是你可以通过使用他们各自的官方应用访问你的各种云存储。目前，提供官方Linux客户端的服务提供商有[SpiderOak][1], [Dropbox][2], [Ubuntu One][3],[Copy][5]。[Ubuntu One][3]虽不出名但的确是[一个不错的云存储竞争着][4]。[Copy][5]则提供比Dropbox更多的空间，是[Dropbox的替代选择之一][6]。使用这些官方Linux客户端可以保持你的电脑与他们的服务器之间的通信，还可以让你进行属性设置，如选择性同步。 对于普通桌面用户，使用官方客户端是最好的选择，因为官方客户端可以提供最多的功能和最好的兼容性。使用它们也很简单，只需要下载他们对应你的发行版的软件包，然后安装安装完后在运行一下就Ok了。安装客户端时，它一般会指导你完成这些简单的过程。 @@ -25,9 +25,9 @@ 当你运行最后一条命令后，脚本会提醒你这是你第一次运行这个脚本。它将告诉你去浏览一个Dropbox的特定网页以便访问你的账户。它还会告诉你所有你需要放入网站的信息，这是为了让Dropbox给你App Key和App Secret以及赋予这个脚本你给予的访问权限。现在脚本就拥有了访问你账户的合法授权了。 -这些一旦完成，你就可以这个脚本执行各种任务了，例如上传、下载、删除、移动、复制、创建文件夹、查看文件、共享文件、查看文件信息和取消共享。对于全部的语法解释，你可以查看一下[这个页面](9)。 +这些一旦完成，你就可以这个脚本执行各种任务了，例如上传、下载、删除、移动、复制、创建文件夹、查看文件、共享文件、查看文件信息和取消共享。对于全部的语法解释，你可以查看一下[这个页面][9]。 -###通过[Storage Made Easy](7)将SkyDrive带到Linux上 +###通过[Storage Made Easy][7]将SkyDrive带到Linux上 微软并没有提供SkyDrive的官方Linux客户端，这一点也不令人惊讶。但是你并不意味着你不能在Linux上访问SkyDrive，记住：SkyDrive的web版本是可用的。 @@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ 第一次启动时。它会要求你登录，还有询问你要把云存储挂载到什么地方。在你做完了这些后，你就可以浏览你选择的文件夹，你还可以访问你的Storage Made Easy空间以及你的SkyDrive空间了！这种方法对于那些想在Linux上使用SkyDrive的人来说非常好，对于想把他们的多个云存储服务整合到一个地方的人来说也很不错。这种方法的缺点是你无法使用他们各自官方客户端中可以使用的特殊功能。 -因为现在在你的Linux桌面上也可以使用SkyDrive，接下来你可能需要阅读一下我写的[SkyDrive与Google Drive的比较](8)以便于知道究竟哪种更适合于你。 +因为现在在你的Linux桌面上也可以使用SkyDrive，接下来你可能需要阅读一下我写的[SkyDrive与Google Drive的比较][8]以便于知道究竟哪种更适合于你。 ###结论 diff --git a/published/20141211 Open source all over the world.md b/published/201508/20141211 Open source all over the world.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20141211 Open source all over the world.md rename to published/201508/20141211 Open source all over the world.md diff --git a/published/20150128 7 communities driving open source development.md b/published/201508/20150128 7 communities driving open source development.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150128 7 communities driving open source development.md rename to published/201508/20150128 7 communities driving open source development.md diff --git a/published/201508/20150205 Install Strongswan - A Tool to Setup IPsec Based VPN in Linux.md b/published/201508/20150205 Install Strongswan - A Tool to Setup IPsec Based VPN in Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..22e50e355d --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/20150205 Install Strongswan - A Tool to Setup IPsec Based VPN in Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,114 @@ +安装 Strongswan ：Linux 上一个基于 IPsec 的 VPN 工具 +================================================================================ + +IPsec是一个提供网络层安全的标准。它包含认证头(AH)和安全负载封装(ESP)组件。AH提供包的完整性，ESP组件提供包的保密性。IPsec确保了在网络层的安全特性。 + +- 保密性 +- 数据包完整性 +- 来源不可抵赖性 +- 重放攻击防护 + +[Strongswan][1]是一个IPsec协议的开源代码实现，Strongswan的意思是强安全广域网（StrongS/WAN）。它支持IPsec的VPN中的两个版本的密钥自动交换（网络密钥交换（IKE）V1和V2）。 + +Strongswan基本上提供了在VPN的两个节点/网关之间自动交换密钥的共享，然后它使用了Linux内核的IPsec（AH和ESP）实现。密钥共享使用了之后用于ESP数据加密的IKE 机制。在IKE阶段，strongswan使用OpenSSL的加密算法（AES，SHA等等）和其他加密类库。无论如何，IPsec中的ESP组件使用的安全算法是由Linux内核实现的。Strongswan的主要特性如下： + +- x.509证书或基于预共享密钥认证 +- 支持IKEv1和IKEv2密钥交换协议 +- 可选的，对于插件和库的内置完整性和加密测试 +- 支持椭圆曲线DH群和ECDSA证书 +- 在智能卡上存储RSA私钥和证书 + +它能被使用在客户端/服务器（road warrior模式）和网关到网关的情景。 + +### 如何安装 ### + +几乎所有的Linux发行版都支持Strongswan的二进制包。在这个教程，我们会从二进制包安装strongswan，也会从源代码编译带有合适的特性的strongswan。 + +### 使用二进制包 ### + +可以使用以下命令安装Strongswan到Ubuntu 14.04 LTS + + $ sudo aptitude install strongswan + +![安装strongswan](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/strongswan-binary.png) + +strongswan的全局配置（strongswan.conf）文件和ipsec配置（ipsec.conf/ipsec.secrets）文件都在/etc/目录下。 + +### strongswan源码编译安装的依赖包 ### + +- GMP（strongswan使用的高精度数学库） +- OpenSSL（加密算法来自这个库） +- PKCS（1，7，8，11，12）（证书编码和智能卡集成） + +#### 步骤 #### + +**1)** 在终端使用下面命令到/usr/src/目录 + + $ cd /usr/src + +**2)** 用下面命令从strongswan网站下载源代码 + + $ sudo wget http://download.strongswan.org/strongswan-5.2.1.tar.gz + +（strongswan-5.2.1.tar.gz 是当前最新版。） + +![下载软件](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/download_strongswan.png) + +**3)** 用下面命令提取下载的软件，然后进入目录。 + + $ sudo tar –xvzf strongswan-5.2.1.tar.gz; cd strongswan-5.2.1 + +**4)** 使用configure命令配置strongswan每个想要的选项。 + + $ ./configure --prefix=/usr/local -–enable-pkcs11 -–enable-openssl + +![检查strongswan包](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/strongswan-configure.png) + +如果GMP库没有安装，配置脚本将会发生下面的错误。 + +![GMP library error](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-error.png) + +因此，首先，使用下面命令安装GMP库然后执行配置脚本。 + +![gmp installation](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-installation1.png) + +不过，如果GMP已经安装还报上述错误的话，在Ubuntu上使用如下命令，给在路径 /usr/lib，/lib/，/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/ 下的libgmp.so库创建软连接。 + + $ sudo ln -s /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgmp.so.10.1.3 /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgmp.so + +![softlink of libgmp.so library](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/softlink.png) + +创建libgmp.so软连接后，再执行./configure脚本也许就找到gmp库了。然而，如果gmp头文件发生其他错误，像下面这样。 + +![GMP header file issu](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-header.png) + +为解决上面的错误，使用下面命令安装libgmp-dev包 + + $ sudo aptitude install libgmp-dev + +![Installation of Development library of GMP](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-dev.png) + +安装gmp的开发库后，在运行一遍配置脚本，如果没有发生错误，则将看见下面的这些输出。 + +![Output of Configure scirpt](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/successful-run.png) + +使用下面的命令编译安装strongswan。 + + $ sudo make ; sudo make install + +安装strongswan后，全局配置（strongswan.conf）和ipsec策略/密码配置文件（ipsec.conf/ipsec.secretes）被放在**/usr/local/etc**目录。 + +根据我们的安全需要Strongswan可以用作隧道或者传输模式。它提供众所周知的site-2-site模式和road warrior模式的VPN。它很容易使用在Cisco，Juniper设备上。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/security/install-strongswan/ + +作者：[nido][a] +译者：[wyangsun](https://github.com/wyangsun) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/naveeda/ +[1]:https://www.strongswan.org/ diff --git a/published/20150209 Install OpenQRM Cloud Computing Platform In Debian.md b/published/201508/20150209 Install OpenQRM Cloud Computing Platform In Debian.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150209 Install OpenQRM Cloud Computing Platform In Debian.md rename to published/201508/20150209 Install OpenQRM Cloud Computing Platform In Debian.md diff --git a/published/20150318 How to Manage and Use LVM (Logical Volume Management) in Ubuntu.md b/published/201508/20150318 How to Manage and Use LVM (Logical Volume Management) in Ubuntu.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150318 How to Manage and Use LVM (Logical Volume Management) in Ubuntu.md rename to published/201508/20150318 How to Manage and Use LVM (Logical Volume Management) in Ubuntu.md diff --git a/translated/tech/20150318 How to Use LVM on Ubuntu for Easy Partition Resizing and Snapshots.md b/published/201508/20150318 How to Use LVM on Ubuntu for Easy Partition Resizing and Snapshots.md similarity index 75% rename from translated/tech/20150318 How to Use LVM on Ubuntu for Easy Partition Resizing and Snapshots.md rename to published/201508/20150318 How to Use LVM on Ubuntu for Easy Partition Resizing and Snapshots.md index 2e66e27f31..adf9abd11c 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150318 How to Use LVM on Ubuntu for Easy Partition Resizing and Snapshots.md +++ b/published/201508/20150318 How to Use LVM on Ubuntu for Easy Partition Resizing and Snapshots.md @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ -Ubuntu上使用LVM轻松调整分区并制作快照 +Ubuntu 上使用 LVM 轻松调整分区并制作快照 ================================================================================ ![](http://cdn5.howtogeek.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ximg_55035707bbd74.png.pagespeed.ic.9_yebxUF1C.png) -Ubuntu的安装器提供了一个轻松“使用LVM”的复选框。说明中说，它启用了逻辑卷管理，因此你可以制作快照，并更容易地调整硬盘分区大小——这里将为大家讲述如何完成这些操作。 +Ubuntu的安装器提供了一个轻松“使用LVM”的复选框。它的描述中说，启用逻辑卷管理可以让你制作快照，并更容易地调整硬盘分区大小——这里将为大家讲述如何完成这些操作。 -LVM是一种技术，某种程度上和[RAID阵列][1]或[Windows上的存储空间][2]类似。虽然该技术在服务器上更为有用，但是它也可以在桌面端PC上使用。 +LVM是一种技术，某种程度上和[RAID阵列][1]或[Windows上的“存储空间”][2]类似。虽然该技术在服务器上更为有用，但是它也可以在桌面端PC上使用。 ### 你应该在新安装Ubuntu时使用LVM吗？ ### -第一个问题是，你是否想要在安装Ubuntu时使用LVM？如果是，那么Ubuntu让这一切变得很简单，只需要轻点鼠标就可以完成，但是该选项默认是不启用的。正如安装器所说的，它允许你调整分区、创建快照、合并多个磁盘到一个逻辑卷等等——所有这一切都可以在系统运行时完成。不同于传统分区，你不需要关掉你的系统，从Live CD或USB驱动，然后[调整这些不使用的分区][3]。 +第一个问题是，你是否想要在安装Ubuntu时使用LVM？如果是，那么Ubuntu让这一切变得很简单，只需要轻点鼠标就可以完成，但是该选项默认是不启用的。正如安装器所说的，它允许你调整分区、创建快照、将多个磁盘合并到一个逻辑卷等等——所有这一切都可以在系统运行时完成。不同于传统分区，你不需要关掉你的系统，从Live CD或USB驱动，然后[当这些分区不使用时才能调整][3]。 完全坦率地说，普通Ubuntu桌面用户可能不会意识到他们是否正在使用LVM。但是，如果你想要在今后做一些更高深的事情，那么LVM就会有所帮助了。LVM可能更复杂，可能会在你今后恢复数据时会导致问题——尤其是在你经验不足时。这里不会有显著的性能损失——LVM是彻底地在Linux内核中实现的。 @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ LVM是一种技术，某种程度上和[RAID阵列][1]或[Windows上的存储空 前面，我们已经[说明了何谓LVM][4]。概括来讲，它在你的物理磁盘和呈现在你系统中的分区之间提供了一个抽象层。例如，你的计算机可能装有两个硬盘驱动器，它们的大小都是 1 TB。你必须得在这些磁盘上至少分两个区，每个区大小 1 TB。 -LVM就在这些分区上提供了一个抽象层。用于取代磁盘上的传统分区，LVM将在你对这些磁盘初始化后，将它们当作独立的“物理卷”来对待。然后，你就可以基于这些物理卷创建“逻辑卷”。例如，你可以将这两个 1 TB 的磁盘组合成一个 2 TB 的分区，你的系统将只看到一个 2 TB 的卷，而LVM将会在后台处理这一切。一组物理卷以及一组逻辑卷被称之为“卷组”，一个标准的系统只会有一个卷组。 +LVM就在这些分区上提供了一个抽象层。用于取代磁盘上的传统分区，LVM将在你对这些磁盘初始化后，将它们当作独立的“物理卷”来对待。然后，你就可以基于这些物理卷创建“逻辑卷”。例如，你可以将这两个 1 TB 的磁盘组合成一个 2 TB 的分区，你的系统将只看到一个 2 TB 的卷，而LVM将会在后台处理这一切。一组物理卷以及一组逻辑卷被称之为“卷组”，一个典型的系统只会有一个卷组。 该抽象层使得调整分区、将多个磁盘组合成单个卷、甚至为一个运行着的分区的文件系统创建“快照”变得十分简单，而完成所有这一切都无需先卸载分区。 @@ -28,11 +28,11 @@ LVM就在这些分区上提供了一个抽象层。用于取代磁盘上的传 通常，[LVM通过Linux终端命令来管理][5]。这在Ubuntu上也行得通，但是有个更简单的图形化方法可供大家采用。如果你是一个Linux用户，对GParted或者与其类似的分区管理器熟悉，算了，别瞎掰了——GParted根本不支持LVM磁盘。 -然而，你可以使用Ubuntu附带的磁盘工具。该工具也被称之为GNOME磁盘工具，或者叫Palimpsest。点击停靠盘上的图标来开启它吧，搜索磁盘然后敲击回车。不像GParted，该磁盘工具将会在“其它设备”下显示LVM分区，因此你可以根据需要格式化这些分区，也可以调整其它选项。该工具在Live CD或USB 驱动下也可以使用。 +然而，你可以使用Ubuntu附带的磁盘工具。该工具也被称之为GNOME磁盘工具，或者叫Palimpsest。点击dash中的图标来开启它吧，搜索“磁盘”然后敲击回车。不像GParted，该磁盘工具将会在“其它设备”下显示LVM分区，因此你可以根据需要格式化这些分区，也可以调整其它选项。该工具在Live CD或USB 驱动下也可以使用。 ![](http://cdn5.howtogeek.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ximg_550361b3772f7.png.pagespeed.ic.nZWwLJUywR.png) -不幸的是，该磁盘工具不支持LVM的大多数强大的特性，没有管理卷组、扩展分区，或者创建快照等选项。对于这些操作，你可以通过终端来实现，但是你没有那个必要。相反，你可以打开Ubuntu软件中心，搜索关键字LVM，然后安装逻辑卷管理工具，你可以在终端窗口中运行**sudo apt-get install system-config-lvm**命令来安装它。安装完之后，你就可以从停靠盘上打开逻辑卷管理工具了。 +不幸的是，该磁盘工具不支持LVM的大多数强大的特性，没有管理卷组、扩展分区，或者创建快照等选项。对于这些操作，你可以通过终端来实现，但是没有那个必要。相反，你可以打开Ubuntu软件中心，搜索关键字LVM，然后安装逻辑卷管理工具，你可以在终端窗口中运行**sudo apt-get install system-config-lvm**命令来安装它。安装完之后，你就可以从dash上打开逻辑卷管理工具了。 这个图形化配置工具是由红帽公司开发的，虽然有点陈旧了，但却是唯一的图形化方式，你可以通过它来完成上述操作，将那些终端命令抛诸脑后了。 @@ -40,11 +40,11 @@ LVM就在这些分区上提供了一个抽象层。用于取代磁盘上的传 ![](http://cdn5.howtogeek.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ximg_550363106789c.png.pagespeed.ic.drVInt3Weq.png) -卷组视图会列出你所有物理卷和逻辑卷的总览。这里，我们有两个横跨两个独立硬盘驱动器的物理分区，我们有一个交换分区和一个根分区，就像Ubuntu默认设置的分区图表。由于我们从另一个驱动器添加了第二个物理分区，现在那里有大量未使用空间。 +卷组视图会列出你所有的物理卷和逻辑卷的总览。这里，我们有两个横跨两个独立硬盘驱动器的物理分区，我们有一个交换分区和一个根分区，这是Ubuntu默认设置的分区图表。由于我们从另一个驱动器添加了第二个物理分区，现在那里有大量未使用空间。 ![](http://cdn5.howtogeek.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ximg_550363f631c19.png.pagespeed.ic.54E_Owcq8y.png) -要扩展逻辑分区到物理空间，你可以在逻辑视图下选择它，点击编辑属性，然后修改大小来扩大分区。你也可以在这里缩减分区。 +要扩展逻辑分区到物理空间，你可以在逻辑视图下选择它，点击编辑属性，然后修改大小来扩大分区。你也可以在这里缩小分区。 ![](http://cdn5.howtogeek.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ximg_55036893712d3.png.pagespeed.ic.ce7y_Mt0uF.png) @@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ system-config-lvm的其它选项允许你设置快照和镜像。对于传统桌 via: http://www.howtogeek.com/211937/how-to-use-lvm-on-ubuntu-for-easy-partition-resizing-and-snapshots/ 译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201508/20150410 How to run Ubuntu Snappy Core on Raspberry Pi 2.md b/published/201508/20150410 How to run Ubuntu Snappy Core on Raspberry Pi 2.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c36ae7adb7 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/20150410 How to run Ubuntu Snappy Core on Raspberry Pi 2.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +如何在树莓派 2 运行 ubuntu Snappy Core +================================================================================ +物联网(Internet of Things， IoT) 时代即将来临。很快，过不了几年，我们就会问自己当初是怎么在没有物联网的情况下生存的，就像我们现在怀疑过去没有手机的年代。Canonical 就是一个物联网快速发展却还是开放市场下的竞争者。这家公司宣称自己把赌注压到了IoT 上，就像他们已经在“云”上做过的一样。在今年一月底，Canonical 启动了一个基于Ubuntu Core 的小型操作系统，名字叫做 [Ubuntu Snappy Core][1] 。 + +Snappy 代表了两种意思，它是一种用来替代 deb 的新的打包格式；也是一个用来更新系统的前端，从CoreOS、红帽子和其他系统借鉴了**原子更新**这个想法。自从树莓派 2 投入市场，Canonical 很快就发布了用于树莓派的Snappy Core 版本。而第一代树莓派因为是基于ARMv6 ，Ubuntu 的ARM 镜像是基于ARMv7 ，所以不能运行ubuntu 。不过这种状况现在改变了，Canonical 通过发布 Snappy Core 的RPI2 镜像，抓住机会证明了Snappy 就是一个用于云计算，特别是用于物联网的系统。 + +Snappy 同样可以运行在其它像Amazon EC2， Microsofts Azure， Google的 Compute Engine 这样的云端上，也可以虚拟化在 KVM、Virtuabox 和vagrant 上。Canonical Ubuntu 已经拥抱了微软、谷歌、Docker、OpenStack 这些重量级选手，同时也与一些小项目达成合作关系。除了一些创业公司，比如 Ninja Sphere、Erle Robotics，还有一些开发板生产商，比如 Odroid、Banana Pro, Udoo, PCDuino 和 Parallella 、全志，Snappy 也提供了支持。Snappy Core 同时也希望尽快运行到路由器上来帮助改进路由器生产商目前很少更新固件的策略。 + +接下来，让我们看看怎么样在树莓派 2 上运行 Ubuntu Snappy Core。 + +用于树莓派2 的Snappy 镜像可以从 [Raspberry Pi 网站][2] 上下载。解压缩出来的镜像必须[写到一个至少8GB 大小的SD 卡][3]。尽管原始系统很小，但是原子升级和回滚功能会占用不小的空间。使用 Snappy 启动树莓派 2 后你就可以使用默认用户名和密码(都是ubuntu)登录系统。 + +![](https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7639/16428527263_f7bdd56a0d_c.jpg) + +sudo 已经配置好了可以直接用，安全起见，你应该使用以下命令来修改你的用户名 + + $ sudo usermod -l + +或者也可以使用`adduser` 为你添加一个新用户。 + +因为RPI缺少硬件时钟，而 Snappy Core 镜像并不知道这一点，所以系统会有一个小 bug：处理某些命令时会报很多错。不过这个很容易解决： + +使用这个命令来确认这个bug 是否影响： + + $ date + +如果输出类似 "Thu Jan 1 01:56:44 UTC 1970"， 你可以这样做来改正： + + $ sudo date --set="Sun Apr 04 17:43:26 UTC 2015" + +改成你的实际时间。 + +![](https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8735/16426231744_c54d9b8877_b.jpg) + +现在你可能打算检查一下，看看有没有可用的更新。注意通常使用的命令是不行的： + + $ sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get distupgrade + +这时系统不会让你通过，因为 Snappy 使用它自己精简过的、基于dpkg 的包管理系统。这么做的原因是 Snappy 会运行很多嵌入式程序，而同时你也会试图所有事情尽可能的简化。 + +让我们来看看最关键的部分，理解一下程序是如何与 Snappy 工作的。运行 Snappy 的SD 卡上除了 boot 分区外还有3个分区。其中的两个构成了一个重复的文件系统。这两个平行文件系统被固定挂载为只读模式，并且任何时刻只有一个是激活的。第三个分区是一个部分可写的文件系统，用来让用户存储数据。通过更新系统，标记为'system-a' 的分区会保持一个完整的文件系统，被称作核心，而另一个平行的文件系统仍然会是空的。 + +![](https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8758/16841251947_21f42609ce_b.jpg) + +如果我们运行以下命令： + + $ sudo snappy update + +系统将会在'system-b' 上作为一个整体进行更新，这有点像是更新一个镜像文件。接下来你将会被告知要重启系统来激活新核心。 + +重启之后，运行下面的命令可以检查你的系统是否已经更新到最新版本，以及当前被激活的是哪个核心 + + $ sudo snappy versions -a + +经过更新-重启两步操作，你应该可以看到被激活的核心已经被改变了。 + +因为到目前为止我们还没有安装任何软件，所以可以用下面的命令更新： + + $ sudo snappy update ubuntu-core + +如果你打算仅仅更新特定的OS 版本这就够了。如果出了问题，你可以使用下面的命令回滚： + + $ sudo snappy rollback ubuntu-core + +这将会把系统状态回滚到更新之前。 + +![](https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7666/17022676786_5fe6804ed8_c.jpg) + +再来说说那些让 Snappy 变得有用的软件。这里不会讲的太多关于如何构建软件、向 Snappy 应用商店添加软件的基础知识，但是你可以通过 Freenode 上的IRC 频道 #snappy 了解更多信息，那个上面有很多人参与。你可以通过浏览器访问http://\:4200 来浏览应用商店，然后从商店安装软件，再在浏览器里访问 http://webdm.local 来启动程序。如何构建用于 Snappy 的软件并不难，而且也有了现成的[参考文档][4] 。你也可以很容易的把 DEB 安装包使用Snappy 格式移植到Snappy 上。 + +![](https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7656/17022676836_968a2a7254_c.jpg) + +尽管 Ubuntu Snappy Core 吸引了我们去研究新型的 Snappy 安装包格式和 Canonical 式的原子更新操作，但是因为有限的可用应用，它现在在生产环境里还不是很有用。但是既然搭建一个 Snappy 环境如此简单，这看起来是一个学点新东西的好机会。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://xmodulo.com/ubuntu-snappy-core-raspberry-pi-2.html + +作者：[Ferdinand Thommes][a] +译者：[Ezio](https://github.com/oska874) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://xmodulo.com/author/ferdinand +[1]:http://www.ubuntu.com/things +[2]:http://www.raspberrypi.org/downloads/ +[3]:http://xmodulo.com/write-raspberry-pi-image-sd-card.html +[4]:https://developer.ubuntu.com/en/snappy/ diff --git a/published/20150504 How to access a Linux server behind NAT via reverse SSH tunnel.md b/published/201508/20150504 How to access a Linux server behind NAT via reverse SSH tunnel.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150504 How to access a Linux server behind NAT via reverse SSH tunnel.md rename to published/201508/20150504 How to access a Linux server behind NAT via reverse SSH tunnel.md diff --git a/translated/tech/20150518 How to set up a Replica Set on MongoDB.md b/published/201508/20150518 How to set up a Replica Set on MongoDB.md similarity index 51% rename from translated/tech/20150518 How to set up a Replica Set on MongoDB.md rename to published/201508/20150518 How to set up a Replica Set on MongoDB.md index 44b8535b82..7d05a48d95 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150518 How to set up a Replica Set on MongoDB.md +++ b/published/201508/20150518 How to set up a Replica Set on MongoDB.md @@ -1,10 +1,11 @@ -如何配置MongoDB副本集（Replica Set） +如何配置 MongoDB 副本集 ================================================================================ -MongoDB已经成为市面上最知名的NoSQL数据库。MongoDB是面向文档的，它的无模式设计使得它在各种各样的WEB应用当中广受欢迎。最让我喜欢的特性之一是它的副本集，副本集将同一数据的多份拷贝放在一组mongod节点上，从而实现数据的冗余以及高可用性。 -这篇教程将向你介绍如何配置一个MongoDB副本集。 +MongoDB 已经成为市面上最知名的 NoSQL 数据库。MongoDB 是面向文档的，它的无模式设计使得它在各种各样的WEB 应用当中广受欢迎。最让我喜欢的特性之一是它的副本集（Replica Set），副本集将同一数据的多份拷贝放在一组 mongod 节点上，从而实现数据的冗余以及高可用性。 -副本集的最常见配置涉及到一个主节点以及多个副节点。这之后启动的复制行为会从这个主节点到其他副节点。副本集不止可以针对意外的硬件故障和停机事件对数据库提供保护，同时也因为提供了更多的结点从而提高了数据库客户端数据读取的吞吐量。 +这篇教程将向你介绍如何配置一个 MongoDB 副本集。 + +副本集的最常见配置需要一个主节点以及多个副节点。这之后启动的复制行为会从这个主节点到其他副节点。副本集不止可以针对意外的硬件故障和停机事件对数据库提供保护，同时也因为提供了更多的节点从而提高了数据库客户端数据读取的吞吐量。 ### 配置环境 ### @@ -12,25 +13,25 @@ MongoDB已经成为市面上最知名的NoSQL数据库。MongoDB是面向文档 ![](https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7667/17801038505_529a5224a1.jpg) -为了达到这个目的，我们使用了3个运行在VirtualBox上的虚拟机。我会在这些虚拟机上安装Ubuntu 14.04，并且安装MongoDB官方包。 +为了达到这个目的，我们使用了3个运行在 VirtualBox 上的虚拟机。我会在这些虚拟机上安装 Ubuntu 14.04，并且安装 MongoDB 官方包。 -我会在一个虚拟机实例上配置好需要的环境，然后将它克隆到其他的虚拟机实例上。因此，选择一个名为master的虚拟机，执行以下安装过程。 +我会在一个虚拟机实例上配置好所需的环境，然后将它克隆到其他的虚拟机实例上。因此，选择一个名为 master 的虚拟机，执行以下安装过程。 -首先，我们需要在apt中增加一个MongoDB密钥： +首先，我们需要给 apt 增加一个 MongoDB 密钥： $ sudo apt-key adv --keyserver hkp://keyserver.ubuntu.com:80 --recv 7F0CEB10 -然后，将官方的MongoDB仓库添加到source.list中： +然后，将官方的 MongoDB 仓库添加到 source.list 中： $ sudo su # echo "deb http://repo.mongodb.org/apt/ubuntu "$(lsb_release -sc)"/mongodb-org/3.0 multiverse" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/mongodb-org-3.0.list -接下来更新apt仓库并且安装MongoDB。 +接下来更新 apt 仓库并且安装 MongoDB。 $ sudo apt-get update $ sudo apt-get install -y mongodb-org -现在对/etc/mongodb.conf做一些更改 +现在对 /etc/mongodb.conf 做一些更改 auth = true dbpath=/var/lib/mongodb @@ -39,17 +40,17 @@ MongoDB已经成为市面上最知名的NoSQL数据库。MongoDB是面向文档 keyFile=/var/lib/mongodb/keyFile replSet=myReplica -第一行的作用是确认我们的数据库需要验证才可以使用的。keyfile用来配置用于MongoDB结点间复制行为的密钥文件。replSet用来为副本集设置一个名称。 +第一行的作用是表明我们的数据库需要验证才可以使用。keyfile 配置用于 MongoDB 节点间复制行为的密钥文件。replSet 为副本集设置一个名称。 接下来我们创建一个用于所有实例的密钥文件。 $ echo -n "MyRandomStringForReplicaSet" | md5sum > keyFile -这将会创建一个含有MD5字符串的密钥文件，但是由于其中包含了一些噪音，我们需要对他们清理后才能正式在MongoDB中使用。 +这将会创建一个含有 MD5 字符串的密钥文件，但是由于其中包含了一些噪音，我们需要对他们清理后才能正式在 MongoDB 中使用。 $ echo -n "MyReplicaSetKey" | md5sum|grep -o "[0-9a-z]\+" > keyFile -grep命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后的MD5字符串打印出来。 +grep 命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后的 MD5 字符串打印出来。 现在我们对密钥文件进行一些操作，让它真正可用。 @@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ grep命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后 $ sudo chown mongodb:nogroup keyFile $ sudo chmod 400 keyFile -接下来，关闭此虚拟机。将其Ubuntu系统克隆到其他虚拟机上。 +接下来，关闭此虚拟机。将其 Ubuntu 系统克隆到其他虚拟机上。 ![](https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8729/17800903865_9876a9cc9c.jpg) @@ -67,55 +68,55 @@ grep命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后 请注意，三个虚拟机示例需要在同一个网络中以便相互通讯。因此，我们需要它们弄到“互联网"上去。 -这里推荐给每个虚拟机设置一个静态IP地址，而不是使用DHCP。这样它们就不至于在DHCP分配IP地址给他们的时候失去连接。 +这里推荐给每个虚拟机设置一个静态 IP 地址，而不是使用 DHCP。这样它们就不至于在 DHCP 分配IP地址给他们的时候失去连接。 -像下面这样编辑每个虚拟机的/etc/networks/interfaces文件。 +像下面这样编辑每个虚拟机的 /etc/networks/interfaces 文件。 -在主结点上: +在主节点上: auto eth1 iface eth1 inet static address 192.168.50.2 netmask 255.255.255.0 -在副结点1上: +在副节点1上: auto eth1 iface eth1 inet static address 192.168.50.3 netmask 255.255.255.0 -在副结点2上: +在副节点2上: auto eth1 iface eth1 inet static address 192.168.50.4 netmask 255.255.255.0 -由于我们没有DNS服务，所以需要设置设置一下/etc/hosts这个文件，手工将主机名称放到次文件中。 +由于我们没有 DNS 服务，所以需要设置设置一下 /etc/hosts 这个文件，手工将主机名称放到此文件中。 -在主结点上: +在主节点上: 127.0.0.1 localhost primary 192.168.50.2 primary 192.168.50.3 secondary1 192.168.50.4 secondary2 -在副结点1上: +在副节点1上: 127.0.0.1 localhost secondary1 192.168.50.2 primary 192.168.50.3 secondary1 192.168.50.4 secondary2 -在副结点2上: +在副节点2上: 127.0.0.1 localhost secondary2 192.168.50.2 primary 192.168.50.3 secondary1 192.168.50.4 secondary2 -使用ping命令检查各个结点之间的连接。 +使用 ping 命令检查各个节点之间的连接。 $ ping primary $ ping secondary1 @@ -123,9 +124,9 @@ grep命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后 ### 配置副本集 ### -验证各个结点可以正常连通后，我们就可以新建一个管理员用户，用于之后的副本集操作。 +验证各个节点可以正常连通后，我们就可以新建一个管理员用户，用于之后的副本集操作。 -在主节点上，打开/etc/mongodb.conf文件，将auth和replSet两项注释掉。 +在主节点上，打开 /etc/mongodb.conf 文件，将 auth 和 replSet 两项注释掉。 dbpath=/var/lib/mongodb logpath=/var/log/mongodb/mongod.log @@ -133,21 +134,30 @@ grep命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后 #auth = true keyFile=/var/lib/mongodb/keyFile #replSet=myReplica + +在一个新安装的 MongoDB 上配置任何用户或副本集之前，你需要注释掉 auth 行。默认情况下，MongoDB 并没有创建任何用户。而如果在你创建用户前启用了 auth，你就不能够做任何事情。你可以在创建一个用户后再次启用 auth。 -重启mongod进程。 +修改 /etc/mongodb.conf 之后，重启 mongod 进程。 $ sudo service mongod restart -连接MongoDB后，新建管理员用户。 +现在连接到 MongoDB master： + + $ mongo :27017 + +连接 MongoDB 后，新建管理员用户。 > use admin > db.createUser({ user:"admin", pwd:" }) + +重启 MongoDB： + $ sudo service mongod restart -连接到MongoDB，用以下命令将secondary1和secondary2节点添加到我们的副本集中。 +再次连接到 MongoDB，用以下命令将 副节点1 和副节点2节点添加到我们的副本集中。 > use admin > db.auth("admin","myreallyhardpassword") @@ -156,7 +166,7 @@ grep命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后 > rs.add("secondary2:27017") -现在副本集到手了，可以开始我们的项目了。参照 [official driver documentation][1] 来了解如何连接到副本集。如果你想要用Shell来请求数据，那么你需要连接到主节点上来插入或者请求数据，副节点不行。如果你执意要尝试用附件点操作，那么以下错误信息就蹦出来招呼你了。 +现在副本集到手了，可以开始我们的项目了。参照 [官方驱动文档][1] 来了解如何连接到副本集。如果你想要用 Shell 来请求数据，那么你需要连接到主节点上来插入或者请求数据，副节点不行。如果你执意要尝试用副本集操作，那么以下错误信息就蹦出来招呼你了。 myReplica:SECONDARY> myReplica:SECONDARY> show databases @@ -166,6 +176,12 @@ grep命令的作用的是把将空格等我们不想要的内容过滤掉之后 at shellHelper.show (src/mongo/shell/utils.js:630:33) at shellHelper (src/mongo/shell/utils.js:524:36) at (shellhelp2):1:1 at src/mongo/shell/mongo.js:47 + +如果你要从 shell 连接到整个副本集，你可以安装如下命令。在副本集中的失败切换是自动的。 + + $ mongo primary,secondary1,secondary2:27017/?replicaSet=myReplica + +如果你使用其它驱动语言（例如，JavaScript、Ruby 等等），格式也许不同。 希望这篇教程能对你有所帮助。你可以使用Vagrant来自动完成你的本地环境配置，并且加速你的代码。 @@ -175,7 +191,7 @@ via: http://xmodulo.com/setup-replica-set-mongodb.html 作者：[Christopher Valerio][a] 译者：[mr-ping](https://github.com/mr-ping) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/20150522 Analyzing Linux Logs.md b/published/201508/20150522 Analyzing Linux Logs.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150522 Analyzing Linux Logs.md rename to published/201508/20150522 Analyzing Linux Logs.md diff --git a/translated/tech/20150527 Howto Manage Host Using Docker Machine in a VirtualBox.md b/published/201508/20150527 Howto Manage Host Using Docker Machine in a VirtualBox.md similarity index 63% rename from translated/tech/20150527 Howto Manage Host Using Docker Machine in a VirtualBox.md rename to published/201508/20150527 Howto Manage Host Using Docker Machine in a VirtualBox.md index 153035c9f4..f47f79b3b7 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150527 Howto Manage Host Using Docker Machine in a VirtualBox.md +++ b/published/201508/20150527 Howto Manage Host Using Docker Machine in a VirtualBox.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ 在 VirtualBox 中使用 Docker Machine 管理主机 ================================================================================ -大家好，今天我们学习在 VirtualBox 中使用 Docker Machine 来创建和管理 Docker 主机。Docker Machine 是一个应用，用于在我们的电脑上、在云端、在数据中心创建 Docker 主机，然后用户可以使用 Docker 客户端来配置一些东西。这个 API 为本地主机、或数据中心的虚拟机、或云端的实例提供 Docker 服务。Docker Machine 支持 Windows、OSX 和 Linux，并且是以一个独立的二进制文件包形式安装的。使用（与现有 Docker 工具）相同的接口，我们就可以充分利用已经提供 Docker 基础框架的生态系统。只要一个命令，用户就能快速部署 Docker 容器。 +大家好，今天我们学习在 VirtualBox 中使用 Docker Machine 来创建和管理 Docker 主机。Docker Machine 是一个可以帮助我们在电脑上、在云端、在数据中心内创建 Docker 主机的应用。它为根据用户的配置和需求创建服务器并在其上安装 Docker和客户端提供了一个轻松的解决方案。这个 API 可以用于在本地主机、或数据中心的虚拟机、或云端的实例提供 Docker 服务。Docker Machine 支持 Windows、OSX 和 Linux，并且是以一个独立的二进制文件包形式安装的。仍然使用（与现有 Docker 工具）相同的接口，我们就可以充分利用已经提供 Docker 基础框架的生态系统。只要一个命令，用户就能快速部署 Docker 容器。 本文列出一些简单的步骤用 Docker Machine 来部署 docker 容器。 @@ -8,15 +8,15 @@ Docker Machine 完美支持所有 Linux 操作系统。首先我们需要从 [github][1] 下载最新版本的 Docker Machine，本文使用 curl 作为下载工具，Docker Machine 版本为 0.2.0。 -** 64 位操作系统 ** +**64 位操作系统** # curl -L https://github.com/docker/machine/releases/download/v0.2.0/docker-machine_linux-amd64 > /usr/local/bin/docker-machine -** 32 位操作系统 ** +**32 位操作系统** # curl -L https://github.com/docker/machine/releases/download/v0.2.0/docker-machine_linux-i386 > /usr/local/bin/docker-machine -下载完成后，找到 **/usr/local/bin** 目录下的 **docker-machine** 文件，执行一下： +下载完成后，找到 **/usr/local/bin** 目录下的 **docker-machine** 文件，让其可以执行： # chmod +x /usr/local/bin/docker-machine @@ -28,12 +28,12 @@ Docker Machine 完美支持所有 Linux 操作系统。首先我们需要从 [gi 运行下面的命令，安装 Docker 客户端，以便于在我们自己的电脑止运行 Docker 命令： - # curl -L https://get.docker.com/builds/linux/x86_64/docker-latest > /usr/local/bin/docker - # chmod +x /usr/local/bin/docker + # curl -L https://get.docker.com/builds/linux/x86_64/docker-latest > /usr/local/bin/docker + # chmod +x /usr/local/bin/docker ### 2. 创建 VirtualBox 虚拟机 ### -在 Linux 系统上安装完 Docker Machine 后，接下来我们可以安装 VirtualBox 虚拟机，运行下面的就可以了。--driver virtualbox 选项表示我们要在 VirtualBox 的虚拟机里面部署 docker，最后的参数“linux” 是虚拟机的名称。这个命令会下载 [boot2docker][2] iso，它是个基于 Tiny Core Linux 的轻量级发行版，自带 Docker 程序，然后 docker-machine 命令会创建一个 VirtualBox 虚拟机（LCTT：当然，我们也可以选择其他的虚拟机软件）来运行这个 boot2docker 系统。 +在 Linux 系统上安装完 Docker Machine 后，接下来我们可以安装 VirtualBox 虚拟机，运行下面的就可以了。`--driver virtualbox` 选项表示我们要在 VirtualBox 的虚拟机里面部署 docker，最后的参数“linux” 是虚拟机的名称。这个命令会下载 [boot2docker][2] iso，它是个基于 Tiny Core Linux 的轻量级发行版，自带 Docker 程序，然后 `docker-machine` 命令会创建一个 VirtualBox 虚拟机（LCTT译注：当然，我们也可以选择其他的虚拟机软件）来运行这个 boot2docker 系统。 # docker-machine create --driver virtualbox linux @@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ Docker Machine 完美支持所有 Linux 操作系统。首先我们需要从 [gi ### 3. 设置环境变量 ### -现在我们需要让 docker 与虚拟机通信，运行 docker-machine env <虚拟机名称> 来实现这个目的。 +现在我们需要让 docker 与 docker-machine 通信，运行 `docker-machine env <虚拟机名称>` 来实现这个目的。 # eval "$(docker-machine env linux)" # docker ps @@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ Docker Machine 完美支持所有 Linux 操作系统。首先我们需要从 [gi ### 4. 运行 Docker 容器 ### -完成配置后我们就可以在 VirtualBox 上运行 docker 容器了。测试一下，在虚拟机里执行 **docker run busybox echo hello world** 命令，我们可以看到容器的输出信息。 +完成配置后我们就可以在 VirtualBox 上运行 docker 容器了。测试一下，我们可以运行虚拟机 `docker run busybox` ，并在里面里执行 `echo hello world` 命令，我们可以看到容器的输出信息。 # docker run busybox echo hello world @@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ Docker Machine 完美支持所有 Linux 操作系统。首先我们需要从 [gi ### 5. 拿到 Docker 主机的 IP ### -我们可以执行下面的命令获取 Docker 主机的 IP 地址。 +我们可以执行下面的命令获取运行 Docker 的主机的 IP 地址。我们可以看到在 Docker 主机的 IP 地址上的任何暴露出来的端口。 # docker-machine ip @@ -94,7 +94,9 @@ Docker Machine 完美支持所有 Linux 操作系统。首先我们需要从 [gi ### 总结 ### -最后，我们使用 Docker Machine 成功在 VirtualBox 上创建并管理一台 Docker 主机。Docker Machine 确实能让用户快速地在不同的平台上部署 Docker 主机，就像我们这里部署在 VirtualBox 上一样。这个 --driver virtulbox 驱动可以在本地机器上使用，也可以在数据中心的虚拟机上使用。Docker Machine 驱动除了支持本地的 VirtualBox 之外，还支持远端的 Digital Ocean、AWS、Azure、VMware 以及其他基础设施。如果你有任何疑问，或者建议，请在评论栏中写出来，我们会不断改进我们的内容。谢谢，祝愉快。 +最后，我们使用 Docker Machine 成功在 VirtualBox 上创建并管理一台 Docker 主机。Docker Machine 确实能让用户快速地在不同的平台上部署 Docker 主机，就像我们这里部署在 VirtualBox 上一样。这个 virtualbox 驱动可以在本地机器上使用，也可以在数据中心的虚拟机上使用。Docker Machine 驱动除了支持本地的 VirtualBox 之外，还支持远端的 Digital Ocean、AWS、Azure、VMware 以及其它基础设施。 + +如果你有任何疑问，或者建议，请在评论栏中写出来，我们会不断改进我们的内容。谢谢，祝愉快。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -102,7 +104,7 @@ via: http://linoxide.com/linux-how-to/host-virtualbox-docker-machine/ 作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] 译者：[bazz2](https://github.com/bazz2) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/20150602 Howto Configure OpenVPN Server-Client on Ubuntu 15.04.md b/published/201508/20150602 Howto Configure OpenVPN Server-Client on Ubuntu 15.04.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150602 Howto Configure OpenVPN Server-Client on Ubuntu 15.04.md rename to published/201508/20150602 Howto Configure OpenVPN Server-Client on Ubuntu 15.04.md diff --git a/published/20150604 Nishita Agarwal Shares Her Interview Experience on Linux 'iptables' Firewall.md b/published/201508/20150604 Nishita Agarwal Shares Her Interview Experience on Linux 'iptables' Firewall.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150604 Nishita Agarwal Shares Her Interview Experience on Linux 'iptables' Firewall.md rename to published/201508/20150604 Nishita Agarwal Shares Her Interview Experience on Linux 'iptables' Firewall.md diff --git a/published/20150610 Tickr Is An Open-Source RSS News Ticker for Linux Desktops.md b/published/201508/20150610 Tickr Is An Open-Source RSS News Ticker for Linux Desktops.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150610 Tickr Is An Open-Source RSS News Ticker for Linux Desktops.md rename to published/201508/20150610 Tickr Is An Open-Source RSS News Ticker for Linux Desktops.md diff --git a/published/20150625 How to Provision Swarm Clusters using Docker Machine.md b/published/201508/20150625 How to Provision Swarm Clusters using Docker Machine.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150625 How to Provision Swarm Clusters using Docker Machine.md rename to published/201508/20150625 How to Provision Swarm Clusters using Docker Machine.md diff --git a/published/20150629 Autojump--An Advanced 'cd' Command to Quickly Navigate Linux Filesystem.md b/published/201508/20150629 Autojump--An Advanced 'cd' Command to Quickly Navigate Linux Filesystem.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150629 Autojump--An Advanced 'cd' Command to Quickly Navigate Linux Filesystem.md rename to published/201508/20150629 Autojump--An Advanced 'cd' Command to Quickly Navigate Linux Filesystem.md diff --git a/published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 1 - Introduction.md b/published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 1 - Introduction.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 1 - Introduction.md rename to published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 1 - Introduction.md diff --git a/published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 2 - The GNOME Desktop.md b/published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 2 - The GNOME Desktop.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 2 - The GNOME Desktop.md rename to published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 2 - The GNOME Desktop.md diff --git a/published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 3 - GNOME Applications.md b/published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 3 - GNOME Applications.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 3 - GNOME Applications.md rename to published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 3 - GNOME Applications.md diff --git a/published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 4 - GNOME Settings.md b/published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 4 - GNOME Settings.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 4 - GNOME Settings.md rename to published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 4 - GNOME Settings.md diff --git a/published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 5 - Conclusion.md b/published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 5 - Conclusion.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 5 - Conclusion.md rename to published/201508/20150716 A Week With GNOME As My Linux Desktop--What They Get Right & Wrong - Page 5 - Conclusion.md diff --git a/published/20150717 How to Configure Chef (server or client) on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md b/published/201508/20150717 How to Configure Chef (server or client) on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150717 How to Configure Chef (server or client) on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md rename to published/201508/20150717 How to Configure Chef (server or client) on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md diff --git a/published/20150717 How to collect NGINX metrics - Part 2.md b/published/201508/20150717 How to collect NGINX metrics - Part 2.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150717 How to collect NGINX metrics - Part 2.md rename to published/201508/20150717 How to collect NGINX metrics - Part 2.md diff --git a/published/20150717 How to monitor NGINX with Datadog - Part 3.md b/published/201508/20150717 How to monitor NGINX with Datadog - Part 3.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150717 How to monitor NGINX with Datadog - Part 3.md rename to published/201508/20150717 How to monitor NGINX with Datadog - Part 3.md diff --git a/published/20150717 How to monitor NGINX- Part 1.md b/published/201508/20150717 How to monitor NGINX- Part 1.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150717 How to monitor NGINX- Part 1.md rename to published/201508/20150717 How to monitor NGINX- Part 1.md diff --git a/published/20150717 Howto Configure FTP Server with Proftpd on Fedora 22.md b/published/201508/20150717 Howto Configure FTP Server with Proftpd on Fedora 22.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150717 Howto Configure FTP Server with Proftpd on Fedora 22.md rename to published/201508/20150717 Howto Configure FTP Server with Proftpd on Fedora 22.md diff --git a/translated/tech/20150722 How To Fix 'The Update Information Is Outdated' In Ubuntu 14.04.md b/published/201508/20150722 How To Fix 'The Update Information Is Outdated' In Ubuntu 14.04.md similarity index 91% rename from translated/tech/20150722 How To Fix 'The Update Information Is Outdated' In Ubuntu 14.04.md rename to published/201508/20150722 How To Fix 'The Update Information Is Outdated' In Ubuntu 14.04.md index cebfab93c4..c4a9e43e85 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150722 How To Fix 'The Update Information Is Outdated' In Ubuntu 14.04.md +++ b/published/201508/20150722 How To Fix 'The Update Information Is Outdated' In Ubuntu 14.04.md @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ Ubuntu 14.04中修复“update information is outdated”错误 ================================================================================ ![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Fix_update_information_is_outdated.jpeg) -看到Ubuntu 14.04的顶部面板上那个显示下面这个错误的红色三角形了吗？ +看到过Ubuntu 14.04的顶部面板上那个显示下面这个错误的红色三角形了吗？ > 更新信息过时。该错误可能是由网络问题，或者某个仓库不再可用而造成的。请通过从指示器菜单中选择‘显示更新’来手动更新，然后查看是否存在有失败的仓库。 > @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ Ubuntu 14.04中修复“update information is outdated”错误 ### 修复‘update information is outdated’错误 ### -这里讨论的‘解决方案’可能对Ubuntu的这些版本有用：Ubuntu 14.04,12.04或14.04。你所要做的仅仅是打开终端（Ctrl+Alt+T），然后使用下面的命令： +这里讨论的‘解决方案’可能对Ubuntu的这些版本有用：Ubuntu 14.04,12.04。你所要做的仅仅是打开终端（Ctrl+Alt+T），然后使用下面的命令： sudo apt-get update @@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ via: http://itsfoss.com/fix-update-information-outdated-ubuntu/ 作者：[Abhishek][a] 译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 @@ -56,4 +56,4 @@ via: http://itsfoss.com/fix-update-information-outdated-ubuntu/ [2]:http://itsfoss.com/notification-terminal-command-completion-ubuntu/ [3]:http://itsfoss.com/solve-gpg-error-signatures-verified-ubuntu/ [4]:http://itsfoss.com/install-spotify-ubuntu-1504/ -[5]:http://itsfoss.com/fix-update-errors-ubuntu-1404/ +[5]:https://linux.cn/article-5603-1.html diff --git a/published/20150722 How To Manage StartUp Applications In Ubuntu.md b/published/201508/20150722 How To Manage StartUp Applications In Ubuntu.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150722 How To Manage StartUp Applications In Ubuntu.md rename to published/201508/20150722 How To Manage StartUp Applications In Ubuntu.md diff --git a/published/20150727 Easy Backup Restore and Migrate Containers in Docker.md b/published/201508/20150727 Easy Backup Restore and Migrate Containers in Docker.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150727 Easy Backup Restore and Migrate Containers in Docker.md rename to published/201508/20150727 Easy Backup Restore and Migrate Containers in Docker.md diff --git a/published/20150728 How To Fix--There is no command installed for 7-zip archive files.md b/published/201508/20150728 How To Fix--There is no command installed for 7-zip archive files.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150728 How To Fix--There is no command installed for 7-zip archive files.md rename to published/201508/20150728 How To Fix--There is no command installed for 7-zip archive files.md diff --git a/published/20150728 How to Update Linux Kernel for Improved System Performance.md b/published/201508/20150728 How to Update Linux Kernel for Improved System Performance.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150728 How to Update Linux Kernel for Improved System Performance.md rename to published/201508/20150728 How to Update Linux Kernel for Improved System Performance.md diff --git a/published/20150728 Tips to Create ISO from CD, Watch User Activity and Check Memory Usages of Browser.md b/published/201508/20150728 Tips to Create ISO from CD, Watch User Activity and Check Memory Usages of Browser.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150728 Tips to Create ISO from CD, Watch User Activity and Check Memory Usages of Browser.md rename to published/201508/20150728 Tips to Create ISO from CD, Watch User Activity and Check Memory Usages of Browser.md diff --git a/published/20150728 Understanding Shell Commands Easily Using 'Explain Shell' Script in Linux.md b/published/201508/20150728 Understanding Shell Commands Easily Using 'Explain Shell' Script in Linux.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150728 Understanding Shell Commands Easily Using 'Explain Shell' Script in Linux.md rename to published/201508/20150728 Understanding Shell Commands Easily Using 'Explain Shell' Script in Linux.md diff --git a/published/20150729 What is Logical Volume Management and How Do You Enable It in Ubuntu.md b/published/201508/20150729 What is Logical Volume Management and How Do You Enable It in Ubuntu.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150729 What is Logical Volume Management and How Do You Enable It in Ubuntu.md rename to published/201508/20150729 What is Logical Volume Management and How Do You Enable It in Ubuntu.md diff --git a/published/20150730 Compare PDF Files on Ubuntu.md b/published/201508/20150730 Compare PDF Files on Ubuntu.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150730 Compare PDF Files on Ubuntu.md rename to published/201508/20150730 Compare PDF Files on Ubuntu.md diff --git a/published/20150730 Must-Know Linux Commands For New Users.md b/published/201508/20150730 Must-Know Linux Commands For New Users.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150730 Must-Know Linux Commands For New Users.md rename to published/201508/20150730 Must-Know Linux Commands For New Users.md diff --git a/published/20150803 Handy commands for profiling your Unix file systems.md b/published/201508/20150803 Handy commands for profiling your Unix file systems.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150803 Handy commands for profiling your Unix file systems.md rename to published/201508/20150803 Handy commands for profiling your Unix file systems.md diff --git a/published/20150803 Linux Logging Basics.md b/published/201508/20150803 Linux Logging Basics.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150803 Linux Logging Basics.md rename to published/201508/20150803 Linux Logging Basics.md diff --git a/translated/tech/20150803 Troubleshooting with Linux Logs.md b/published/201508/20150803 Troubleshooting with Linux Logs.md similarity index 61% rename from translated/tech/20150803 Troubleshooting with Linux Logs.md rename to published/201508/20150803 Troubleshooting with Linux Logs.md index 5950a69d98..ca117d8af3 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150803 Troubleshooting with Linux Logs.md +++ b/published/201508/20150803 Troubleshooting with Linux Logs.md @@ -1,10 +1,11 @@ 在 Linux 中使用日志来排错 ================================================================================ -人们创建日志的主要原因是排错。通常你会诊断为什么问题发生在你的 Linux 系统或应用程序中。错误信息或一些列事件可以给你提供造成根本原因的线索，说明问题是如何发生的，并指出如何解决它。这里有几个使用日志来解决的样例。 + +人们创建日志的主要原因是排错。通常你会诊断为什么问题发生在你的 Linux 系统或应用程序中。错误信息或一系列的事件可以给你提供找出根本原因的线索，说明问题是如何发生的，并指出如何解决它。这里有几个使用日志来解决的样例。 ### 登录失败原因 ### -如果你想检查你的系统是否安全，你可以在验证日志中检查登录失败的和登录成功但可疑的用户。当有人通过不正当或无效的凭据来登录时会出现认证失败，经常使用 SSH 进行远程登录或 su 到本地其他用户来进行访问权。这些是由[插入式验证模块][1]来记录，或 PAM 进行短期记录。在你的日志中会看到像 Failed 这样的字符串密码和未知的用户。成功认证记录包括像 Accepted 这样的字符串密码并打开会话。 +如果你想检查你的系统是否安全，你可以在验证日志中检查登录失败的和登录成功但可疑的用户。当有人通过不正当或无效的凭据来登录时会出现认证失败，这通常发生在使用 SSH 进行远程登录或 su 到本地其他用户来进行访问权时。这些是由[插入式验证模块（PAM）][1]来记录的。在你的日志中会看到像 Failed password 和 user unknown 这样的字符串。而成功认证记录则会包括像 Accepted password 和 session opened 这样的字符串。 失败的例子: @@ -30,22 +31,21 @@ 由于没有标准格式，所以你需要为每个应用程序的日志使用不同的命令。日志管理系统，可以自动分析日志，将它们有效的归类，帮助你提取关键字，如用户名。 -日志管理系统可以使用自动解析功能从 Linux 日志中提取用户名。这使你可以看到用户的信息，并能单个的筛选。在这个例子中，我们可以看到，root 用户登录了 2700 次，因为我们筛选的日志显示尝试登录的只有 root 用户。 +日志管理系统可以使用自动解析功能从 Linux 日志中提取用户名。这使你可以看到用户的信息，并能通过点击过滤。在下面这个例子中，我们可以看到，root 用户登录了 2700 次之多，因为我们筛选的日志仅显示 root 用户的尝试登录记录。 ![](http://www.loggly.com/ultimate-guide/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Screen-Shot-2015-03-12-at-11.05.36-AM.png) -日志管理系统也让你以时间为做坐标轴的图标来查看使你更容易发现异常。如果有人在几分钟内登录失败一次或两次，它可能是一个真正的用户而忘记了密码。但是，如果有几百个失败的登录并且使用的都是不同的用户名，它更可能是在试图攻击系统。在这里，你可以看到在3月12日，有人试图登录 Nagios 几百次。这显然​​不是一个合法的系统用户。 +日志管理系统也可以让你以时间为做坐标轴的图表来查看，使你更容易发现异常。如果有人在几分钟内登录失败一次或两次，它可能是一个真正的用户而忘记了密码。但是，如果有几百个失败的登录并且使用的都是不同的用户名，它更可能是在试图攻击系统。在这里，你可以看到在3月12日，有人试图登录 Nagios 几百次。这显然​​不是一个合法的系统用户。 ![](http://www.loggly.com/ultimate-guide/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Screen-Shot-2015-03-12-at-11.12.18-AM.png) ### 重启的原因 ### - 有时候，一台服务器由于系统崩溃或重启而宕机。你怎么知道它何时发生，是谁做的？ #### 关机命令 #### -如果有人手动运行 shutdown 命令，你可以看到它的身份在验证日志文件中。在这里，你可以看到，有人从 IP 50.0.134.125 上作为 ubuntu 的用户远程登录了，然后关闭了系统。 +如果有人手动运行 shutdown 命令，你可以在验证日志文件中看到它。在这里，你可以看到，有人从 IP 50.0.134.125 上作为 ubuntu 的用户远程登录了，然后关闭了系统。 Mar 19 18:36:41 ip-172-31-11-231 sshd[23437]: Accepted publickey for ubuntu from 50.0.134.125 port 52538 ssh Mar 19 18:36:41 ip-172-31-11-231 23437]:sshd[ pam_unix(sshd:session): session opened for user ubuntu by (uid=0) @@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ #### 内核初始化 #### -如果你想看看服务器重新启动的所有原因（包括崩溃），你可以从内核初始化日志中寻找。你需要搜索内核设施和初始化 cpu 的信息。 +如果你想看看服务器重新启动的所有原因（包括崩溃），你可以从内核初始化日志中寻找。你需要搜索内核类（kernel）和 cpu 初始化（Initializing）的信息。 Mar 19 18:39:30 ip-172-31-11-231 kernel: [ 0.000000] Initializing cgroup subsys cpuset Mar 19 18:39:30 ip-172-31-11-231 kernel: [ 0.000000] Initializing cgroup subsys cpu @@ -61,9 +61,9 @@ ### 检测内存问题 ### -有很多原因可能导致服务器崩溃，但一个普遍的原因是内存用尽。 +有很多原因可能导致服务器崩溃，但一个常见的原因是内存用尽。 -当你系统的内存不足时，进程会被杀死，通常会杀死使用最多资源的进程。当系统正在使用的内存发生错误并且有新的或现有的进程试图使用更多的内存。在你的日志文件查找像 Out of Memory 这样的字符串，内核也会发出杀死进程的警告。这些信息表明系统故意杀死进程或应用程序，而不是允许进程崩溃。 +当你系统的内存不足时，进程会被杀死，通常会杀死使用最多资源的进程。当系统使用了所有内存，而新的或现有的进程试图使用更多的内存时就会出现错误。在你的日志文件查找像 Out of Memory 这样的字符串或类似 kill 这样的内核警告信息。这些信息表明系统故意杀死进程或应用程序，而不是允许进程崩溃。 例如: @@ -75,20 +75,20 @@ $ grep “Out of memory” /var/log/syslog [33238.178288] Out of memory: Kill process 6230 (firefox) score 53 or sacrifice child -请记住，grep 也要使用内存，所以导致内存不足的错误可能只是运行的 grep。这是另一个分析日志的独特方法！ +请记住，grep 也要使用内存，所以只是运行 grep 也可能导致内存不足的错误。这是另一个你应该中央化存储日志的原因！ ### 定时任务错误日志 ### -cron 守护程序是一个调度器只在指定的日期和时间运行进程。如果进程运行失败或无法完成，那么 cron 的错误出现在你的日志文件中。你可以找到这些文件在 /var/log/cron，/var/log/messages，和 /var/log/syslog 中，具体取决于你的发行版。cron 任务失败原因有很多。通常情况下，问题出在进程中而不是 cron 守护进程本身。 +cron 守护程序是一个调度器，可以在指定的日期和时间运行进程。如果进程运行失败或无法完成，那么 cron 的错误出现在你的日志文件中。具体取决于你的发行版，你可以在 /var/log/cron，/var/log/messages，和 /var/log/syslog 几个位置找到这个日志。cron 任务失败原因有很多。通常情况下，问题出在进程中而不是 cron 守护进程本身。 -默认情况下，cron 作业会通过电子邮件发送信息。这里是一个日志中记录的发送电子邮件的内容。不幸的是，你不能看到邮件的内容在这里。 +默认情况下，cron 任务的输出会通过 postfix 发送电子邮件。这是一个显示了该邮件已经发送的日志。不幸的是，你不能在这里看到邮件的内容。 Mar 13 16:35:01 PSQ110 postfix/pickup[15158]: C3EDC5800B4: uid=1001 from= Mar 13 16:35:01 PSQ110 postfix/cleanup[15727]: C3EDC5800B4: message-id=<20150310110501.C3EDC5800B4@PSQ110> Mar 13 16:35:01 PSQ110 postfix/qmgr[15159]: C3EDC5800B4: from=, size=607, nrcpt=1 (queue active) Mar 13 16:35:05 PSQ110 postfix/smtp[15729]: C3EDC5800B4: to=, relay=gmail-smtp-in.l.google.com[74.125.130.26]:25, delay=4.1, delays=0.26/0/2.2/1.7, dsn=2.0.0, status=sent (250 2.0.0 OK 1425985505 f16si501651pdj.5 - gsmtp) -你应该想想 cron 在日志中的标准输出以帮助你定位问题。这里展示你可以使用 logger 命令重定向 cron 标准输出到 syslog。用你的脚本来代替 echo 命令，helloCron 可以设置为任何你想要的应用程序的名字。 +你可以考虑将 cron 的标准输出记录到日志中，以帮助你定位问题。这是一个你怎样使用 logger 命令重定向 cron 标准输出到 syslog的例子。用你的脚本来代替 echo 命令，helloCron 可以设置为任何你想要的应用程序的名字。 */5 * * * * echo ‘Hello World’ 2>&1 | /usr/bin/logger -t helloCron @@ -97,7 +97,9 @@ cron 守护程序是一个调度器只在指定的日期和时间运行进程。 Apr 28 22:20:01 ip-172-31-11-231 CRON[15296]: (ubuntu) CMD (echo 'Hello World!' 2>&1 | /usr/bin/logger -t helloCron) Apr 28 22:20:01 ip-172-31-11-231 helloCron: Hello World! -每个 cron 作业将根据作业的具体类型以及如何输出数据来记录不同的日志。希望在日志中有问题根源的线索，也可以根据需要添加额外的日志记录。 +每个 cron 任务将根据任务的具体类型以及如何输出数据来记录不同的日志。 + +希望在日志中有问题根源的线索，也可以根据需要添加额外的日志记录。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -107,7 +109,7 @@ via: http://www.loggly.com/ultimate-guide/logging/troubleshooting-with-linux-log 作者：[Amy Echeverri][a2] 作者：[Sadequl Hussain][a3] 译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/20150806 5 Reasons Why Software Developer is a Great Career Choice.md b/published/201508/20150806 5 Reasons Why Software Developer is a Great Career Choice.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150806 5 Reasons Why Software Developer is a Great Career Choice.md rename to published/201508/20150806 5 Reasons Why Software Developer is a Great Career Choice.md diff --git a/published/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix 'ImportError--No module named wxversion' on Linux.md b/published/201508/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix 'ImportError--No module named wxversion' on Linux.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix 'ImportError--No module named wxversion' on Linux.md rename to published/201508/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix 'ImportError--No module named wxversion' on Linux.md diff --git a/published/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to install git on Linux.md b/published/201508/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to install git on Linux.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to install git on Linux.md rename to published/201508/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to install git on Linux.md diff --git a/published/20150807 How To--Temporarily Clear Bash Environment Variables on a Linux and Unix-like System.md b/published/201508/20150807 How To--Temporarily Clear Bash Environment Variables on a Linux and Unix-like System.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150807 How To--Temporarily Clear Bash Environment Variables on a Linux and Unix-like System.md rename to published/201508/20150807 How To--Temporarily Clear Bash Environment Variables on a Linux and Unix-like System.md diff --git a/published/20150810 For Linux, Supercomputers R Us.md b/published/201508/20150810 For Linux, Supercomputers R Us.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150810 For Linux, Supercomputers R Us.md rename to published/201508/20150810 For Linux, Supercomputers R Us.md diff --git a/published/20150811 Darkstat is a Web Based Network Traffic Analyzer--Install it on Linux.md b/published/201508/20150811 Darkstat is a Web Based Network Traffic Analyzer--Install it on Linux.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150811 Darkstat is a Web Based Network Traffic Analyzer--Install it on Linux.md rename to published/201508/20150811 Darkstat is a Web Based Network Traffic Analyzer--Install it on Linux.md diff --git a/published/20150811 How to download apk files from Google Play Store on Linux.md b/published/201508/20150811 How to download apk files from Google Play Store on Linux.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150811 How to download apk files from Google Play Store on Linux.md rename to published/201508/20150811 How to download apk files from Google Play Store on Linux.md diff --git a/translated/tech/20150813 How to Install Logwatch on Ubuntu 15.04.md b/published/201508/20150813 How to Install Logwatch on Ubuntu 15.04.md similarity index 77% rename from translated/tech/20150813 How to Install Logwatch on Ubuntu 15.04.md rename to published/201508/20150813 How to Install Logwatch on Ubuntu 15.04.md index 8bb0836755..4ea05688cd 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150813 How to Install Logwatch on Ubuntu 15.04.md +++ b/published/201508/20150813 How to Install Logwatch on Ubuntu 15.04.md @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ -Ubuntu 15.04 and系统中安装 Logwatch +如何在 Ubuntu 15.04 系统中安装 Logwatch ================================================================================ -大家好，今天我们会讲述在 Ubuntu 15.04 操作系统上如何安装 Logwatch 软件，它也可以在任意的 Linux 系统和类 Unix 系统上安装。Logwatch 是一款可定制的日志分析和日志监控报告生成系统，它可以根据一段时间的日志文件生成您所希望关注的详细报告。它具有易安装、易配置、可审查等特性，同时对其提供的数据的安全性上也有一些保障措施。Logwatch 会扫描重要的操作系统组件像 SSH、网站服务等的日志文件，然后生成用户所关心的有价值的条目汇总报告。 + +大家好，今天我们会讲述在 Ubuntu 15.04 操作系统上如何安装 Logwatch 软件，它也可以在各种 Linux 系统和类 Unix 系统上安装。Logwatch 是一款可定制的日志分析和日志监控报告生成系统，它可以根据一段时间的日志文件生成您所希望关注的详细报告。它具有易安装、易配置、可审查等特性，同时对其提供的数据的安全性上也有一些保障措施。Logwatch 会扫描重要的操作系统组件像 SSH、网站服务等的日志文件，然后生成用户所关心的有价值的条目汇总报告。 ### 预安装设置 ### @@ -16,13 +17,13 @@ Ubuntu 15.04 and系统中安装 Logwatch root@ubuntu-15:~# apt-get install logwatch -在安装过程中，一旦您按提示按下“Y”健同意对系统修改的话，Logwatch 将会开始安装一些额外的必须软件包。 +在安装过程中，一旦您按提示按下“Y”键同意对系统修改的话，Logwatch 将会开始安装一些额外的必须软件包。 -在安装过程中会根据您机器上的邮件服务器设置情况弹出提示对 Postfix 设置的配置界面。在这篇教程中我们使用最容易的 “仅本地” 选项。根据您的基础设施情况也可以选择其它的可选项，然后点击“确定”继续。 +在安装过程中会根据您机器上的邮件服务器设置情况弹出提示对 Postfix 设置的配置界面。在这篇教程中我们使用最容易的 “仅本地（Local only）” 选项。根据您的基础设施情况也可以选择其它的可选项，然后点击“确定”继续。 ![Potfix Configurations](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/21.png) -随后您得选择邮件服务器名，这邮件服务器名也会被其它程序使用，所以它应该是一个完全合格域名/全称域名（FQDN），且只一个。 +随后您得选择邮件服务器名，这邮件服务器名也会被其它程序使用，所以它应该是一个完全合格域名/全称域名（FQDN）。 ![Postfix Setup](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/31.png) @@ -70,11 +71,11 @@ Ubuntu 15.04 and系统中安装 Logwatch # complete email address. MailFrom = Logwatch -对这个配置文件保存修改，至于其它的参数就让它是默认的，无需改动。 +对这个配置文件保存修改，至于其它的参数就让它保持默认，无需改动。 **调度任务配置** -现在编辑在日常 crons 目录下的 “00logwatch” 文件来配置从 logwatch 生成的报告需要发送的邮件地址。 +现在编辑在 “daily crons” 目录下的 “00logwatch” 文件来配置从 logwatch 生成的报告需要发送的邮件地址。 root@ubuntu-15:~# vim /etc/cron.daily/00logwatch @@ -88,25 +89,25 @@ Ubuntu 15.04 and系统中安装 Logwatch root@ubuntu-15:~#logwatch -生成的报告开始部分显示的是执行的时间和日期。它包含不同的部分，每个部分以开始标识开始而以结束标识结束，中间显示的标识部分提到的完整日志信息。 +生成的报告开始部分显示的是执行的时间和日期。它包含不同的部分，每个部分以开始标识开始而以结束标识结束，中间显示的是该部分的完整信息。 -这儿演示的是开始标识头的样子，要显示系统上所有安装包的信息，如下所示： +这儿显示的是开始的样子，它以显示系统上所有安装的软件包的部分开始，如下所示： ![dpkg status](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/81.png) -接下来的部分显示的日志信息是关于当前系统登陆会话、rsyslogs 和当前及最后可用的会话 SSH 连接信息。 +接下来的部分显示的日志信息是关于当前系统登录会话、rsyslogs 和当前及最近的 SSH 会话信息。 ![logwatch report](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/9.png) -Logwatch 报告最后显示的是安全 sudo 日志及root目录磁盘使用情况，如下示： +Logwatch 报告最后显示的是安全方面的 sudo 日志及根目录磁盘使用情况，如下示： ![Logwatch end report](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/10.png) -您也可以打开如下的文件来检查生成的 logwatch 报告电子邮件。 +您也可以打开如下的文件来查看生成的 logwatch 报告电子邮件。 root@ubuntu-15:~# vim /var/mail/root -您会看到所有已生成的邮件到其配置用户的信息传送状态。 +您会看到发送给你配置的用户的所有已生成的邮件及其邮件递交状态。 ### 更多详情 ### @@ -130,7 +131,7 @@ via: http://linoxide.com/ubuntu-how-to/install-use-logwatch-ubuntu-15-04/ 作者：[Kashif Siddique][a] 译者：[runningwater](https://github.com/runningwater) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/20150813 How to get Public IP from Linux Terminal.md b/published/201508/20150813 How to get Public IP from Linux Terminal.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150813 How to get Public IP from Linux Terminal.md rename to published/201508/20150813 How to get Public IP from Linux Terminal.md diff --git a/published/20150813 Ubuntu Want To Make It Easier For You To Install The Latest Nvidia Linux Driver.md b/published/201508/20150813 Ubuntu Want To Make It Easier For You To Install The Latest Nvidia Linux Driver.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150813 Ubuntu Want To Make It Easier For You To Install The Latest Nvidia Linux Driver.md rename to published/201508/20150813 Ubuntu Want To Make It Easier For You To Install The Latest Nvidia Linux Driver.md diff --git a/published/20150816 Ubuntu NVIDIA Graphics Drivers PPA Is Ready For Action.md b/published/201508/20150816 Ubuntu NVIDIA Graphics Drivers PPA Is Ready For Action.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150816 Ubuntu NVIDIA Graphics Drivers PPA Is Ready For Action.md rename to published/201508/20150816 Ubuntu NVIDIA Graphics Drivers PPA Is Ready For Action.md diff --git a/published/20150816 shellinabox--A Web based AJAX Terminal Emulator.md b/published/201508/20150816 shellinabox--A Web based AJAX Terminal Emulator.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150816 shellinabox--A Web based AJAX Terminal Emulator.md rename to published/201508/20150816 shellinabox--A Web based AJAX Terminal Emulator.md diff --git a/published/201508/20150817 Top 5 Torrent Clients For Ubuntu Linux.md b/published/201508/20150817 Top 5 Torrent Clients For Ubuntu Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0ad6d04671 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/20150817 Top 5 Torrent Clients For Ubuntu Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,115 @@ +Ubuntu 下五个最好的 BT 客户端 +================================================================================ + +![Best Torrent clients for Ubuntu Linux](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/5_Best_Torrent_Ubuntu.png) + +在寻找 **Ubuntu 中最好的 BT 客户端**吗？事实上，Linux 桌面平台中有许多 BT 客户端，但是它们中的哪些才是**最好的 Ubuntu 客户端**呢？ + +我将会列出 Linux 上最好的五个 BT 客户端，它们都拥有着体积轻盈，功能强大的特点，而且还有令人印象深刻的用户界面。自然，易于安装和使用也是特性之一。 + +### Ubuntu 下最好的 BT 客户端 ### + +考虑到 Ubuntu 默认安装了 Transmission，所以我将会从这个列表中排除了 Transmission。但是这并不意味着 Transmission 没有资格出现在这个列表中，事实上，Transmission 是一个非常好的BT客户端，这也正是它被包括 Ubuntu 在内的多个发行版默认安装的原因。 + +### Deluge ### + +![Logo of Deluge torrent client for Ubuntu](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Deluge.png) + +[Deluge][1] 被 Lifehacker 评选为 Linux 下最好的 BT 客户端，这说明了 Deluge 是多么的有用。而且，并不仅仅只有 Lifehacker 是 Deluge 的粉丝，纵观多个论坛，你都会发现不少 Deluge 的忠实拥趸。 + +快速，时尚而直观的界面使得 Deluge 成为 Linux 用户的挚爱。 + +Deluge 可在 Ubuntu 的仓库中获取，你能够在 Ubuntu 软件中心中安装它，或者使用下面的命令： + + sudo apt-get install deluge + +### qBittorrent ### + +![qBittorrent client for Linux](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/qbittorrent_icon.png) + +正如它的名字所暗示的，[qBittorrent][2] 是著名的 [Bittorrent][3] 应用的 Qt 版本。如果曾经使用过它，你将会看到和 Windows 下的 Bittorrent 相似的界面。同样轻巧并且有着 BT 客户端的所有标准功能， qBittorrent 也可以在 Ubuntu 的默认仓库中找到。 + +它可以通过 Ubuntu 软件仓库安装，或者使用下面的命令： + + sudo apt-get install qbittorrent + + +### Tixati ### + +![Tixati torrent client logo](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/tixati_icon.png) + +[Tixati][4] 是另一个不错的 Ubuntu 下的 BT 客户端。它有着一个默认的黑暗主题，尽管很多人喜欢，但是我例外。它拥有着一切你能在 BT 客户端中找到的功能。 + +除此之外，它还有着数据分析的额外功能。你可以在美观的图表中分析流量以及其它数据。 + +- [下载 Tixati][5] + + + +### Vuze ### + +![Vuze Torrent Logo](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/vuze_icon_for_mac_os_x_by_hamzasaleem-d6yx1fp.png) + +[Vuze][6] 是许多 Linux 以及 Windows 用户最喜欢的 BT 客户端。除了标准的功能，你可以直接在应用程序中搜索种子，也可以订阅系列片源，这样就无需再去寻找新的片源了，因为你可以在侧边栏中的订阅看到它们。 + +它还配备了一个视频播放器，可以播放带有字幕的高清视频等等。但是我不认为你会用它来代替那些更好的视频播放器，比如 VLC。 + +Vuze 可以通过 Ubuntu 软件中心安装或者使用下列命令： + + sudo apt-get install vuze + + + +### Frostwire ### + +![Logo of Frostwire torrent client](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/frostwire.png) + +[Frostwire][7] 是一个你应该试一下的应用。它不仅仅是一个简单的 BT 客户端，它还可以应用于安卓，你可以用它通过 Wifi 来共享文件。 + +你可以在应用中搜索种子并且播放他们。除了下载文件，它还可以浏览本地的影音文件，并且将它们有条理的呈现在播放器中。这同样适用于安卓版本。 + +还有一个特点是：Frostwire 提供了独立音乐人的[合法音乐下载][13]。你可以下载并且欣赏它们，免费而且合法。 + +- [下载 Frostwire][8] + + + +### 荣誉奖 ### + +在 Windows 中，uTorrent（发音：mu torrent）是我最喜欢的 BT 应用。尽管 uTorrent 可以在 Linux 下运行，但是我还是特意忽略了它。因为在 Linux 下使用 uTorrent 不仅困难，而且无法获得完整的应用体验（运行在浏览器中）。 + +可以[在这里][9]阅读 Ubuntu下uTorrent 的安装教程。 + +#### 快速提示: #### + +大多数情况下，BT 应用不会默认自动启动。如果想改变这一行为，请阅读[如何管理 Ubuntu 下的自启动程序][10]来学习。 + +### 你最喜欢的是什么？ ### + +这些是我对于 Ubuntu 下最好的 BT 客户端的意见。你最喜欢的是什么呢？请发表评论。也可以查看与本主题相关的[Ubuntu 最好的下载管理器][11]。如果使用 Popcorn Time，试试 [Popcorn Time 技巧][12] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/best-torrent-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[Xuanwo](https://github.com/Xuanwo) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://deluge-torrent.org/ +[2]:http://www.qbittorrent.org/ +[3]:http://www.bittorrent.com/ +[4]:http://www.tixati.com/ +[5]:http://www.tixati.com/download/ +[6]:http://www.vuze.com/ +[7]:http://www.frostwire.com/ +[8]:http://www.frostwire.com/downloads +[9]:http://sysads.co.uk/2014/05/install-utorrent-3-3-ubuntu-14-04-13-10/ +[10]:http://itsfoss.com/manage-startup-applications-ubuntu/ +[11]:http://itsfoss.com/4-best-download-managers-for-linux/ +[12]:http://itsfoss.com/popcorn-time-tips/ +[13]:http://www.frostclick.com/wp/ + diff --git a/translated/tech/20150818 How to monitor stock quotes from the command line on Linux.md b/published/201508/20150818 How to monitor stock quotes from the command line on Linux.md similarity index 75% rename from translated/tech/20150818 How to monitor stock quotes from the command line on Linux.md rename to published/201508/20150818 How to monitor stock quotes from the command line on Linux.md index c2a9e5d576..53be8376a4 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150818 How to monitor stock quotes from the command line on Linux.md +++ b/published/201508/20150818 How to monitor stock quotes from the command line on Linux.md @@ -1,18 +1,19 @@ Linux中通过命令行监控股票报价 ================================================================================ -如果你是那些股票投资者或者交易者中的一员，那么监控证券市场将成为你日常工作中的其中一项任务。最有可能是你会使用一个在线交易平台，这个平台有着一些漂亮的实时图表和全部种类的高级股票分析和交易工具。虽然这种复杂的市场研究工具是任何严肃的证券投资者阅读市场的必备，但是监控最新的股票报价来构建有利可图的投资组合仍然有很长一段路要走。 -如果你是一位长久坐在终端前的全职系统管理员，而证券交易又成了你日常生活中的业余兴趣，那么一个简单地显示实时股票报价的命令行工具会是你的恩赐。 +如果你是那些股票投资者或者交易者中的一员，那么监控证券市场将是你的日常工作之一。最有可能的是你会使用一个在线交易平台，这个平台有着一些漂亮的实时图表和全部种类的高级股票分析和交易工具。虽然这种复杂的市场研究工具是任何严肃的证券投资者了解市场的必备工具，但是监控最新的股票报价来构建有利可图的投资组合仍然有很长一段路要走。 + +如果你是一位长久坐在终端前的全职系统管理员，而证券交易又成了你日常生活中的业余兴趣，那么一个简单地显示实时股票报价的命令行工具会是给你的恩赐。 在本教程中，让我来介绍一个灵巧而简洁的命令行工具，它可以让你在Linux上从命令行监控股票报价。 这个工具叫做[Mop][1]。它是用GO编写的一个轻量级命令行工具，可以极其方便地跟踪来自美国市场的最新股票报价。你可以很轻松地自定义要监控的证券列表，它会在一个基于ncurses的便于阅读的界面显示最新的股票报价。 -**注意**：Mop是通过雅虎金融API获取最新的股票报价的。你必须意识到，他们的的股票报价已知会有15分钟的延时。所以，如果你正在寻找0延时的“实时”股票报价，那么Mop就不是你的菜了。这种“现场”股票报价订阅通常可以通过向一些不开放的私有接口付费获取。对于上面讲得，让我们来看看怎样在Linux环境下使用Mop吧。 +**注意**：Mop是通过雅虎金融API获取最新的股票报价的。你必须意识到，他们的的股票报价已知会有15分钟的延时。所以，如果你正在寻找0延时的“实时”股票报价，那么Mop就不是你的菜了。这种“现场”股票报价订阅通常可以通过向一些不开放的私有接口付费获取。了解这些之后，让我们来看看怎样在Linux环境下使用Mop吧。 ### 安装 Mop 到 Linux ### -由于Mop部署在Go中，你首先需要安装Go语言。如果你还没有安装Go，请参照[此指南][2]将Go安装到你的Linux平台中。请确保按指南中所讲的设置GOPATH环境变量。 +由于Mop是用Go实现的，你首先需要安装Go语言。如果你还没有安装Go，请参照[此指南][2]将Go安装到你的Linux平台中。请确保按指南中所讲的设置GOPATH环境变量。 安装完Go后，继续像下面这样安装Mop。 @@ -42,7 +43,7 @@ Linux中通过命令行监控股票报价 ### 使用Mop来通过命令行监控股票报价 ### -要启动Mop，只需运行名为cmd的命令。 +要启动Mop，只需运行名为cmd的命令（LCTT 译注：这名字实在是……）。 $ cmd @@ -50,7 +51,7 @@ Linux中通过命令行监控股票报价 ![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5749/20018949104_c8c64e0e06_c.jpg) -报价显示了像最新价格、交易百分比、每日低/高、52周低/高、股利以及年产量等信息。Mop从[CNN][3]获取市场总览信息，从[雅虎金融][4]获得个股报价，股票报价信息它自己会在终端内周期性更新。 +报价显示了像最新价格、交易百分比、每日低/高、52周低/高、股息以及年收益率等信息。Mop从[CNN][3]获取市场总览信息，从[雅虎金融][4]获得个股报价，股票报价信息它自己会在终端内周期性更新。 ### 自定义Mop中的股票报价 ### @@ -78,7 +79,7 @@ Linux中通过命令行监控股票报价 ### 尾声 ### -正如你所见，Mop是一个轻量级的，然而极其方便的证券监控工具。当然，你可以很轻松地从其它别的什么地方，从在线站点，你的智能手机等等访问到股票报价信息。然而，如果你在终端环境中花费大量时间，Mop可以很容易地适应你的工作空间，希望没有让你过多地从你的公罗流程中分心。只要让它在你其中一个终端中运行并保持市场日期持续更新，就让它在那干着吧。 +正如你所见，Mop是一个轻量级的，然而极其方便的证券监控工具。当然，你可以很轻松地从其它别的什么地方，从在线站点，你的智能手机等等访问到股票报价信息。然而，如果你在整天使用终端环境，Mop可以很容易地适应你的工作环境，希望没有让你过多地从你的工作流程中分心。只要让它在你其中一个终端中运行并保持市场日期持续更新，那就够了。 交易快乐！ @@ -88,7 +89,7 @@ via: http://xmodulo.com/monitor-stock-quotes-command-line-linux.html 作者：[Dan Nanni][a] 译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/20150818 Linux Without Limits--IBM Launch LinuxONE Mainframes.md b/published/201508/20150818 Linux Without Limits--IBM Launch LinuxONE Mainframes.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150818 Linux Without Limits--IBM Launch LinuxONE Mainframes.md rename to published/201508/20150818 Linux Without Limits--IBM Launch LinuxONE Mainframes.md diff --git a/published/20150818 ​Ubuntu Linux is coming to IBM mainframes.md b/published/201508/20150818 ​Ubuntu Linux is coming to IBM mainframes.md similarity index 100% rename from published/20150818 ​Ubuntu Linux is coming to IBM mainframes.md rename to published/201508/20150818 ​Ubuntu Linux is coming to IBM mainframes.md diff --git a/translated/tech/20150821 How to Install Visual Studio Code in Linux.md b/published/201508/20150821 How to Install Visual Studio Code in Linux.md similarity index 70% rename from translated/tech/20150821 How to Install Visual Studio Code in Linux.md rename to published/201508/20150821 How to Install Visual Studio Code in Linux.md index 48f68ade0b..9694b23d4f 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150821 How to Install Visual Studio Code in Linux.md +++ b/published/201508/20150821 How to Install Visual Studio Code in Linux.md @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ 如何在 Linux 中安装 Visual Studio Code ================================================================================ -大家好，今天我们一起来学习如何在 Linux 发行版中安装 Visual Studio Code。Visual Studio Code 是基于 Electron 优化代码后的编辑器，后者是基于 Chromium 的一款软件，用于为桌面系统发布 io.js 应用。Visual Studio Code 是微软开发的包括 Linux 在内的全平台代码编辑器和文本编辑器。它是免费软件但不开源，在专有软件许可条款下发布。它是我们日常使用的超级强大和快速的代码编辑器。Visual Studio Code 有很多很酷的功能，例如导航、智能感知支持、语法高亮、括号匹配、自动补全、片段、支持自定义键盘绑定、并且支持多种语言，例如 Python、C++、Jade、PHP、XML、Batch、F#、DockerFile、Coffee Script、Java、HandleBars、 R、 Objective-C、 PowerShell、 Luna、 Visual Basic、 .Net、 Asp.Net、 C#、 JSON、 Node.js、 Javascript、 HTML、 CSS、 Less、 Sass 和 Markdown。Visual Studio Code 集成了包管理器和库，并构建通用任务使得加速每日的工作流。Visual Studio Code 中最受欢迎的是它的调试功能，它包括流式支持 Node.js 的预览调试。 +大家好，今天我们一起来学习如何在 Linux 发行版中安装 Visual Studio Code。Visual Studio Code 是基于 Electron 优化代码后的编辑器，后者是基于 Chromium 的一款软件，用于为桌面系统发布 io.js 应用。Visual Studio Code 是微软开发的支持包括 Linux 在内的全平台代码编辑器和文本编辑器。它是免费软件但不开源，在专有软件许可条款下发布。它是可以用于我们日常使用的超级强大和快速的代码编辑器。Visual Studio Code 有很多很酷的功能，例如导航、智能感知支持、语法高亮、括号匹配、自动补全、代码片段、支持自定义键盘绑定、并且支持多种语言，例如 Python、C++、Jade、PHP、XML、Batch、F#、DockerFile、Coffee Script、Java、HandleBars、 R、 Objective-C、 PowerShell、 Luna、 Visual Basic、 .Net、 Asp.Net、 C#、 JSON、 Node.js、 Javascript、 HTML、 CSS、 Less、 Sass 和 Markdown。Visual Studio Code 集成了包管理器、库、构建，以及其它通用任务，以加速日常的工作流。Visual Studio Code 中最受欢迎的是它的调试功能，它包括流式支持 Node.js 的预览调试。 -注意：请注意 Visual Studio Code 只支持 64 位 Linux 发行版。 +注意：请注意 Visual Studio Code 只支持 64 位的 Linux 发行版。 下面是在所有 Linux 发行版中安装 Visual Studio Code 的几个简单步骤。 @@ -32,12 +32,12 @@ ### 3. 运行 Visual Studio Code ### -提取软件包之后，我们可以直接运行一个名为 Code 的文件启动 Visual Studio Code。 +展开软件包之后，我们可以直接运行一个名为 Code 的文件启动 Visual Studio Code。 # sudo chmod +x /opt/VSCode-linux-x64/Code # sudo /opt/VSCode-linux-x64/Code -如果我们想启动 Code 并通过终端能在任何地方打开，我们就需要创建 /opt/vscode/Code 的一个链接 /usr/local/bin/code。 +如果我们想通过终端在任何地方启动 Code，我们就需要创建 /opt/vscode/Code 的一个链接 /usr/local/bin/code。 # ln -s /opt/VSCode-linux-x64/Code /usr/local/bin/code @@ -47,11 +47,11 @@ ### 4. 创建桌面启动 ### -下一步，成功抽取 Visual Studio Code 软件包之后，我们打算创建桌面启动程序，使得根据不同桌面环境能够从启动器、菜单、桌面启动它。首先我们要复制一个图标文件到 /usr/share/icons/ 目录。 +下一步，成功展开 Visual Studio Code 软件包之后，我们打算创建桌面启动程序，使得根据不同桌面环境能够从启动器、菜单、桌面启动它。首先我们要复制一个图标文件到 /usr/share/icons/ 目录。 # cp /opt/VSCode-linux-x64/resources/app/vso.png /usr/share/icons/ -然后，我们创建一个桌面启动程序，文件扩展名为 .desktop。这里我们在 /tmp/VSCODE/ 目录中使用喜欢的文本编辑器创建名为 visualstudiocode.desktop 的文件。 +然后，我们创建一个桌面启动程序，文件扩展名为 .desktop。这里我们使用喜欢的文本编辑器在 /tmp/VSCODE/ 目录中创建名为 visualstudiocode.desktop 的文件。 # vi /tmp/vscode/visualstudiocode.desktop @@ -99,17 +99,19 @@ # apt-get update # apt-get install ubuntu-make -在我们的 ubuntu 操作系统上安装完 Ubuntu Make 之后，我们打算在一个终端中运行以下命令安装 Code。 +在我们的 ubuntu 操作系统上安装完 Ubuntu Make 之后，我们可以在一个终端中运行以下命令来安装 Code。 # umake web visual-studio-code ![Umake Web Code](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/umake-web-code.png) -运行完上面的命令之后，会要求我们输入想要的安装路径。然后，会请求我们允许在 ubuntu 系统中安装 Visual Studio Code。我们敲击 “a”。点击完后，它会在 ubuntu 机器上下载和安装 Code。最后，我们可以在启动器或者菜单中启动它。 +运行完上面的命令之后，会要求我们输入想要的安装路径。然后，会请求我们允许在 ubuntu 系统中安装 Visual Studio Code。我们输入“a”（接受）。输入完后，它会在 ubuntu 机器上下载和安装 Code。最后，我们可以在启动器或者菜单中启动它。 ### 总结 ### -我们已经成功地在 Linux 发行版上安装了 Visual Studio Code。在所有 linux 发行版上安装 Visual Studio Code 都和上面介绍的相似，我们同样可以使用 umake 在 linux 发行版中安装。Umake 是一个安装开发工具，IDEs 和语言流行的工具。我们可以用 Umake 轻松地安装 Android Studios、Eclipse 和很多其它流行 IDE。Visual Studio Code 是基于 Github 上一个叫 [Electron][2] 的项目，它是 [Atom.io][3] 编辑器的一部分。它有很多 Atom.io 编辑器没有的改进功能。当前 Visual Studio Code 只支持 64 位 linux 操作系统平台。如果你有任何疑问、建议或者反馈，请在下面的评论框中留言以便我们改进和更新我们的内容。非常感谢！Enjoy :-) +我们已经成功地在 Linux 发行版上安装了 Visual Studio Code。在所有 linux 发行版上安装 Visual Studio Code 都和上面介绍的相似，我们也可以使用 umake 在 Ubuntu 发行版中安装。Umake 是一个安装开发工具，IDEs 和语言的流行工具。我们可以用 Umake 轻松地安装 Android Studios、Eclipse 和很多其它流行 IDE。Visual Studio Code 是基于 Github 上一个叫 [Electron][2] 的项目，它是 [Atom.io][3] 编辑器的一部分。它有很多 Atom.io 编辑器没有的改进功能。当前 Visual Studio Code 只支持 64 位 linux 操作系统平台。 + +如果你有任何疑问、建议或者反馈，请在下面的评论框中留言以便我们改进和更新我们的内容。非常感谢！Enjoy :-) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -117,7 +119,7 @@ via: http://linoxide.com/linux-how-to/install-visual-studio-code-linux/ 作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] 译者：[ictlyh](https://github.com/ictlyh) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/20150821 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check MariaDB server version.md b/published/201508/20150821 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check MariaDB server version.md similarity index 75% rename from translated/tech/20150821 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check MariaDB server version.md rename to published/201508/20150821 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check MariaDB server version.md index 36ea2d15d6..899c2775de 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150821 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check MariaDB server version.md +++ b/published/201508/20150821 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check MariaDB server version.md @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ -Linux有问必答--如何检查MatiaDB服务端版本 +Linux有问必答：如何检查MariaDB服务端版本 ================================================================================ > **提问**: 我使用的是一台运行MariaDB的VPS。我该如何检查MariaDB服务端的版本？ -你需要知道数据库版本的情况有：当你生你数据库或者为服务器打补丁。这里有几种方法找出MariaDB版本的方法。 +有时候你需要知道你的数据库版本，比如当你升级你数据库或对已知缺陷打补丁时。这里有几种方法找出MariaDB版本的方法。 ### 方法一 ### @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ Linux有问必答--如何检查MatiaDB服务端版本 ### 方法二 ### -如果你不能访问MariaDB，那么你就不能用第一种方法。这种情况下你可以根据MariaDB的安装包的版本来推测。这种方法只有在MariaDB通过包管理器安装的才有用。 +如果你不能访问MariaDB服务器，那么你就不能用第一种方法。这种情况下你可以根据MariaDB的安装包的版本来推测。这种方法只有在MariaDB通过包管理器安装的才有用。 你可以用下面的方法检查MariaDB的安装包。 @@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ via: http://ask.xmodulo.com/check-mariadb-server-version.html 作者：[Dan Nanni][a] 译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201508/20150826 How to Run Kali Linux 2.0 In Docker Container.md b/published/201508/20150826 How to Run Kali Linux 2.0 In Docker Container.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..83248bb51e --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/20150826 How to Run Kali Linux 2.0 In Docker Container.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +如何在 Docker 容器中运行 Kali Linux 2.0 +================================================================================ +### 介绍 ### + +Kali Linux 是一个对于安全测试人员和白帽的一个知名操作系统。它带有大量安全相关的程序，这让它很容易用于渗透测试。最近，[Kali Linux 2.0][1] 发布了，它被认为是这个操作系统最重要的一次发布。另一方面，Docker 技术由于它的可扩展性和易用性让它变得很流行。Dokcer 让你非常容易地将你的程序带给你的用户。好消息是你可以通过 Docker 运行Kali Linux 了，让我们看看该怎么做 :) + +### 在 Docker 中运行 Kali Linux 2.0 ### + +**相关提示** + +> 如果你还没有在系统中安装docker，你可以运行下面的命令： + +> **对于 Ubuntu/Linux Mint/Debian：** + +> sudo apt-get install docker + +> **对于 Fedora/RHEL/CentOS：** + +> sudo yum install docker + +> **对于 Fedora 22：** + +> dnf install docker + +> 你可以运行下面的命令来启动docker： + +> sudo docker start + +首先运行下面的命令确保 Docker 服务运行正常： + + sudo docker status + +Kali Linux 的开发团队已将 Kali Linux 的 docker 镜像上传了，只需要输入下面的命令来下载镜像。 + + docker pull kalilinux/kali-linux-docker + +![Pull Kali Linux docker](http://linuxpitstop.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/129.png) + +下载完成后，运行下面的命令来找出你下载的 docker 镜像的 ID。 + + docker images + +![Kali Linux Image ID](http://linuxpitstop.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/230.png) + +现在运行下面的命令来从镜像文件启动 kali linux docker 容器（这里需用正确的镜像ID替换）。 + + docker run -i -t 198cd6df71ab3 /bin/bash + +它会立刻启动容器并且让你登录到该操作系统，你现在可以在 Kaili Linux 中工作了。 + +![Kali Linux Login](http://linuxpitstop.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/328.png) + +你可以在容器外面通过下面的命令来验证容器已经启动/运行中了： + + docker ps + +![Docker Kali](http://linuxpitstop.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/421.png) + +### 总结 ### + +Docker 是一种最聪明的用来部署和分发包的方式。Kali Linux docker 镜像非常容易上手，也不会消耗很大的硬盘空间，这样也可以很容易地在任何安装了 docker 的操作系统上测试这个很棒的发行版了。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linuxpitstop.com/run-kali-linux-2-0-in-docker-container/ + +作者：[Aun][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linuxpitstop.com/author/aun/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-6005-1.html diff --git a/published/201508/20150827 How to Convert From RPM to DEB and DEB to RPM Package Using Alien.md b/published/201508/20150827 How to Convert From RPM to DEB and DEB to RPM Package Using Alien.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..366a3c1e98 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/20150827 How to Convert From RPM to DEB and DEB to RPM Package Using Alien.md @@ -0,0 +1,160 @@ +Alien 魔法：RPM 和 DEB 互转 +================================================================================ + +正如我确信，你们一定知道Linux下的多种软件安装方式：使用发行版所提供的包管理系统（[aptitude，yum，或者zypper][1]，还可以举很多例子），从源码编译（尽管现在很少用了，但在Linux发展早期却是唯一可用的方法），或者使用各自的低级工具dpkg用于.deb，以及rpm用于.rpm，预编译包，如此这般。 + +![Convert RPM to DEB and DEB to RPM](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Convert-RPM-to-DEB-and-DEB-to-RPM.png) + +*使用Alien将RPM转换成DEB以及将DEB转换成RPM* + +在本文中，我们将为你介绍alien，一个用于在各种不同的Linux包格式相互转换的工具，其最常见的用法是将.rpm转换成.deb（或者反过来）。 + +如果你需要某个特定类型的包，而你只能找到其它格式的包的时候，该工具迟早能派得上用场——即使是其作者不再维护，并且在其网站声明：alien将可能永远维持在实验状态。 + +例如，有一次，我正查找一个用于喷墨打印机的.deb驱动，但是却没有找到——生产厂家只提供.rpm包，这时候alien拯救了我。我安装了alien，将包进行转换，不久之后我就可以使用我的打印机了，没有任何问题。 + +即便如此，我们也必须澄清一下，这个工具不应当用来转换重要的系统文件和库，因为它们在不同的发行版中有不同的配置。只有在前面说的那种情况下所建议的安装方法根本不适合时，alien才能作为最后手段使用。 + +最后一项要点是，我们必须注意，虽然我们在本文中使用CentOS和Debian，除了前两个发行版及其各自的家族体系外，据我们所知，alien可以工作在Slackware中，甚至Solaris中。 + +### 步骤1：安装Alien及其依赖包 ### + +要安装alien到CentOS/RHEL 7中，你需要启用EPEL和Nux Dextop（是的，是Dextop——不是Desktop）仓库，顺序如下： + + # yum install epel-release + +启用Nux Dextop仓库的包的当前最新版本是0.5（2015年8月10日发布），在安装之前你可以查看[http://li.nux.ro/download/nux/dextop/el7/x86_64/][2]上是否有更新的版本。 + + # rpm --import http://li.nux.ro/download/nux/RPM-GPG-KEY-nux.ro + # rpm -Uvh http://li.nux.ro/download/nux/dextop/el7/x86_64/nux-dextop-release-0-5.el7.nux.noarch.rpm + +然后再做， + + # yum update && yum install alien + +在Fedora中，你只需要运行上面的命令即可。 + +在Debian及其衍生版中，只需要： + + # aptitude install alien + +### 步骤2：将.deb转换成.rpm包 ### + +对于本次测试，我们选择了date工具，它提供了一系列日期和时间工具用于处理大量金融数据。我们将下载.deb包到我们的CentOS 7机器中，将它转换成.rpm并安装： + +![Check CentOS Version](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Check-Linux-OS-Version.png) + +检查CentOS版本 + + # cat /etc/centos-release + # wget http://ftp.us.debian.org/debian/pool/main/d/dateutils/dateutils_0.3.1-1.1_amd64.deb + # alien --to-rpm --scripts dateutils_0.3.1-1.1_amd64.deb + +![Convert .deb to .rpm package in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Convert-deb-to-rpm-package.png) + +*在Linux中将.deb转换成.rpm* + +**重要**：（请注意alien是怎样来增加目标包的次版本号的。如果你想要无视该行为，请添加-keep-version标识）。 + +如果我们尝试马上安装该包，我们将碰到些许问题： + + # rpm -Uvh dateutils-0.3.1-2.1.x86_64.rpm + +![Install RPM Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-RPM-Package.png) + +*安装RPM包* + +要解决该问题，我们需要启用epel-testing仓库，然后安装rpmbuild工具来编辑该包的配置以重建包： + + # yum --enablerepo=epel-testing install rpmrebuild + +然后运行， + + # rpmrebuild -pe dateutils-0.3.1-2.1.x86_64.rpm + +它会打开你的默认文本编辑器。请转到`%files`章节并删除涉及到错误信息中提到的目录的行，然后保存文件并退出： + +![Convert .deb to Alien Version](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Convert-Deb-Package-to-Alien-Version.png) + +*转换.deb到Alien版* + +但你退出该文件后，将提示你继续去重构。如果你选择“Y”，该文件会重构到指定的目录（与当前工作目录不同）： + + # rpmrebuild –pe dateutils-0.3.1-2.1.x86_64.rpm + +![Build RPM Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Build-RPM-Package.png) + +*构建RPM包* + +现在你可以像以往一样继续来安装包并验证： + + # rpm -Uvh /root/rpmbuild/RPMS/x86_64/dateutils-0.3.1-2.1.x86_64.rpm + # rpm -qa | grep dateutils + +![Install Build RPM Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Build-RPM-Package.png) + +*安装构建RPM包* + +最后，你可以列出date工具包含的各个工具，也可以查看各自的手册页： + + # ls -l /usr/bin | grep dateutils + +![Verify Installed RPM Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Verify-Installed-Package.png) + +*验证安装的RPM包* + +### 步骤3：将.rpm转换成.deb包 ### + +在本节中，我们将演示如何将.rpm转换成.deb。在一台32位的Debian Wheezy机器中，让我们从CentOS 6操作系统仓库中下载用于zsh shell的.rpm包。注意，该shell在Debian及其衍生版的默认安装中是不可用的。 + + # cat /etc/shells + # lsb_release -a | tail -n 4 + +![Check Shell and Debian OS Version](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Check-Shell-Debian-OS-Version.png) + +*检查Shell和Debian操作系统版本* + + # wget http://mirror.centos.org/centos/6/os/i386/Packages/zsh-4.3.11-4.el6.centos.i686.rpm + # alien --to-deb --scripts zsh-4.3.11-4.el6.centos.i686.rpm + +你可以安全地无视关于签名丢失的信息： + +![Convert .rpm to .deb Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Convert-rpm-to-deb-Package.png) + +*将.rpm转换成.deb包* + +过了一会儿后，.deb包应该已经生成，并可以安装了： + + # dpkg -i zsh_4.3.11-5_i386.deb + +![Install RPM Converted Deb Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Deb-Package.png) + +*安装RPM转换来的Deb包* + +安装完后，你看看可以zsh是否添加到了合法shell列表中： + + # cat /etc/shells + +![Confirm Installed Zsh Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Confirm-Installed-Package.png) + +*确认安装的Zsh包* + +### 小结 ### + +在本文中，我们已经解释了如何将.rpm转换成.deb及其反向转换，这可以作为这类程序不能从仓库中或者作为可分发源代码获得的最后安装手段。你一定想要将本文添加到书签中，因为我们都需要alien。 + +请自由分享你关于本文的想法，写到下面的表单中吧。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/convert-from-rpm-to-deb-and-deb-to-rpm-package-using-alien/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/linux-package-management/ +[2]:http://li.nux.ro/download/nux/dextop/el7/x86_64/ diff --git a/published/201508/20150827 Linux or UNIX--Bash Read a File Line By Line.md b/published/201508/20150827 Linux or UNIX--Bash Read a File Line By Line.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8702ddec41 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/20150827 Linux or UNIX--Bash Read a File Line By Line.md @@ -0,0 +1,169 @@ +Bash 下如何逐行读取一个文件 +================================================================================ + +在 Linux 或类 UNIX 系统下如何使用 KSH 或 BASH shell 逐行读取一个文件？ + +在 Linux、OSX、 *BSD 或者类 Unix 系统下你可以使用 ​​while..do..done 的 bash 循环来逐行读取一个文件。 + +###在 Bash Unix 或者 Linux shell 中逐行读取一个文件的语法 + +对于 bash、ksh、 zsh 和其他的 shells 语法如下 + + while read -r line; do COMMAND; done < input.file + +通过 -r 选项传递给 read 命令以防止阻止解释其中的反斜杠转义符。 + +在 read 命令之前添加 `IFS=` 选项，来防止首尾的空白字符被去掉。 + + while IFS= read -r line; do COMMAND_on $line; done < input.file + +这是更适合人类阅读的语法: + + #!/bin/bash + input="/path/to/txt/file" + while IFS= read -r var + do + echo "$var" + done < "$input" + +**示例** + +下面是一些例子: + + #!/bin/ksh + file="/home/vivek/data.txt" + while IFS= read line + do + # display $line or do somthing with $line + echo "$line" + done <"$file" + +在 bash shell 中相同的例子: + + #!/bin/bash + file="/home/vivek/data.txt" + while IFS= read -r line + do + # display $line or do somthing with $line + printf '%s\n' "$line" + done <"$file" + +你还可以看看这个更好的: + + #!/bin/bash + file="/etc/passwd" + while IFS=: read -r f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 + do + # display fields using f1, f2,..,f7 + printf 'Username: %s, Shell: %s, Home Dir: %s\n' "$f1" "$f7" "$f6" + done <"$file" + +示例输出: + +![Fig.01: Bash shell scripting- read file line by line demo outputs](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/faq/2011/01/Bash-Scripting-Read-File-line-by-line-demo.jpg) + +*图01：Bash 脚本：读取文件并逐行输出文件* + +###Bash 脚本：逐行读取文本文件并创建为 pdf 文件 + +我的输入文件如下（faq.txt）: + + 4|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/mysql-user-creation/|Mysql User Creation: Setting Up a New MySQL User Account + 4096|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/ksh-korn-shell/|What is UNIX / Linux Korn Shell? + 4101|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/what-is-posix-shell/|What Is POSIX Shell? + 17267|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/linux-check-battery-status/|Linux: Check Battery Status Command + 17245|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/restarting-ntp-service-on-linux/|Linux Restart NTPD Service Command + 17183|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/ubuntu-linux-determine-your-ip-address/|Ubuntu Linux: Determine Your IP Address + 17172|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/determine-ip-address-of-linux-server/|HowTo: Determine an IP Address My Linux Server + 16510|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/unix-linux-restart-php-service-command/|Linux / Unix: Restart PHP Service Command + 8292|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/mounting-harddisks-in-freebsd-with-mount-command/|FreeBSD: Mount Hard Drive / Disk Command + 8190|http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/rebooting-solaris-unix-server/|Reboot a Solaris UNIX System + +我的 bash 脚本: + + #!/bin/bash + # Usage: Create pdf files from input (wrapper script) + # Author: Vivek Gite under GPL v2.x+ + #--------------------------------------------------------- + + #Input file + _db="/tmp/wordpress/faq.txt" + + #Output location + o="/var/www/prviate/pdf/faq" + + _writer="~/bin/py/pdfwriter.py" + + # If file exists + if [[ -f "$_db" ]] + then + # read it + while IFS='|' read -r pdfid pdfurl pdftitle + do + local pdf="$o/$pdfid.pdf" + echo "Creating $pdf file ..." + #Genrate pdf file + $_writer --quiet --footer-spacing 2 \ + --footer-left "nixCraft is GIT UL++++ W+++ C++++ M+ e+++ d-" \ + --footer-right "Page [page] of [toPage]" --footer-line \ + --footer-font-size 7 --print-media-type "$pdfurl" "$pdf" + done <"$_db" + fi + +###技巧：从 bash 变量中读取 + +让我们看看如何在 Debian 或者 Ubuntu Linux 下列出所有安装过的 php 包，请输入： + + # 我将输出内容赋值到一个变量名为 $list中 # + + list=$(dpkg --list php\* | awk '/ii/{print $2}') + printf '%s\n' "$list" + +示例输出: + + php-pear + php5-cli + php5-common + php5-fpm + php5-gd + php5-json + php5-memcache + php5-mysql + php5-readline + php5-suhosin-extension + +你现在可以从 $list 中看到它们，并安装这些包： + + #!/bin/bash + # BASH can iterate over $list variable using a "here string" # + while IFS= read -r pkg + do + printf 'Installing php package %s...\n' "$pkg" + /usr/bin/apt-get -qq install $pkg + done <<< "$list" + printf '*** Do not forget to run php5enmod and restart the server (httpd or php5-fpm) ***\n' + +示例输出: + + Installing php package php-pear... + Installing php package php5-cli... + Installing php package php5-common... + Installing php package php5-fpm... + Installing php package php5-gd... + Installing php package php5-json... + Installing php package php5-memcache... + Installing php package php5-mysql... + Installing php package php5-readline... + Installing php package php5-suhosin-extension... + + *** Do not forget to run php5enmod and restart the server (httpd or php5-fpm) *** + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/unix-howto-read-line-by-line-from-file/ + +作者： VIVEK GIT +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/Linux and Unix Test Disk IO Performance With dd Command.MD b/published/201508/Linux and Unix Test Disk IO Performance With dd Command.md similarity index 70% rename from translated/tech/Linux and Unix Test Disk IO Performance With dd Command.MD rename to published/201508/Linux and Unix Test Disk IO Performance With dd Command.md index be5986b78e..be96c3941b 100644 --- a/translated/tech/Linux and Unix Test Disk IO Performance With dd Command.MD +++ b/published/201508/Linux and Unix Test Disk IO Performance With dd Command.md @@ -1,24 +1,25 @@ -使用dd命令在Linux和Unix环境下进行硬盘I/O性能检测 +使用 dd 命令进行硬盘 I/O 性能检测 ================================================================================ -如何使用dd命令测试硬盘的性能？如何在linux操作系统下检测硬盘的读写能力？ + +如何使用dd命令测试我的硬盘性能？如何在linux操作系统下检测硬盘的读写速度？ 你可以使用以下命令在一个Linux或类Unix操作系统上进行简单的I/O性能测试。 -- **dd命令** :它被用来在Linux和类Unix系统下对硬盘设备进行写性能的检测。 -- **hparm命令**：它被用来获取或设置硬盘参数，包括测试读性能以及缓存性能等。 +- **dd命令** ：它被用来在Linux和类Unix系统下对硬盘设备进行写性能的检测。 +- **hparm命令**：它用来在基于 Linux 的系统上获取或设置硬盘参数，包括测试读性能以及缓存性能等。 在这篇指南中，你将会学到如何使用dd命令来测试硬盘性能。 ### 使用dd命令来监控硬盘的读写性能：### -- 打开shell终端（这里貌似不能翻译为终端提示符）。 -- 通过ssh登录到远程服务器。 +- 打开shell终端。 +- 或者通过ssh登录到远程服务器。 - 使用dd命令来测量服务器的吞吐率（写速度) `dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/test1.img bs=1G count=1 oflag=dsync` - 使用dd命令测量服务器延迟 `dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/test2.img bs=512 count=1000 oflag=dsync` ####理解dd命令的选项### -在这个例子当中，我将使用搭载Ubuntu Linux 14.04 LTS系统的RAID-10(配有SAS SSD的Adaptec 5405Z)服务器阵列来运行。基本语法为： +在这个例子当中，我将使用搭载Ubuntu Linux 14.04 LTS系统的RAID-10（配有SAS SSD的Adaptec 5405Z）服务器阵列来运行。基本语法为： dd if=/dev/input.file of=/path/to/output.file bs=block-size count=number-of-blocks oflag=dsync ## GNU dd语法 ## @@ -29,18 +30,19 @@ 输出样例： ![Fig.01: Ubuntu Linux Server with RAID10 and testing server throughput with dd](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/faq/2015/08/dd-server-test-io-speed-output.jpg) -Fig.01: 使用dd命令获取的服务器吞吐率 + +*图01: 使用dd命令获取的服务器吞吐率* 请各位注意在这个实验中，我们写入一个G的数据，可以发现，服务器的吞吐率是135 MB/s，这其中 -- `if=/dev/zero (if=/dev/input.file)` :用来设置dd命令读取的输入文件名。 -- `of=/tmp/test1.img (of=/path/to/output.file)` :dd命令将input.file写入的输出文件的名字。 -- `bs=1G (bs=block-size)` :设置dd命令读取的块的大小。例子中为1个G。 -- `count=1 (count=number-of-blocks)`:　dd命令读取的块的个数。 -- `oflag=dsync (oflag=dsync)` :使用同步I/O。不要省略这个选项。这个选项能够帮助你去除caching的影响，以便呈现给你精准的结果。 +- `if=/dev/zero` (if=/dev/input.file) ：用来设置dd命令读取的输入文件名。 +- `of=/tmp/test1.img` (of=/path/to/output.file)：dd命令将input.file写入的输出文件的名字。 +- `bs=1G` (bs=block-size) ：设置dd命令读取的块的大小。例子中为1个G。 +- `count=1` (count=number-of-blocks)：dd命令读取的块的个数。 +- `oflag=dsync` (oflag=dsync) ：使用同步I/O。不要省略这个选项。这个选项能够帮助你去除caching的影响，以便呈现给你精准的结果。 - `conv=fdatasyn`: 这个选项和`oflag=dsync`含义一样。 -在这个例子中，一共写了1000次，每次写入512字节来获得RAID10服务器的延迟时间： +在下面这个例子中，一共写了1000次，每次写入512字节来获得RAID10服务器的延迟时间： dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/test2.img bs=512 count=1000 oflag=dsync @@ -50,11 +52,11 @@ Fig.01: 使用dd命令获取的服务器吞吐率 1000+0 records out 512000 bytes (512 kB) copied, 0.60362 s, 848 kB/s -请注意服务器的吞吐率以及延迟时间也取决于服务器/应用的加载。所以我推荐你在一个刚刚重启过并且处于峰值时间的服务器上来运行测试，以便得到更加准确的度量。现在你可以在你的所有设备上互相比较这些测试结果了。 +请注意服务器的吞吐率以及延迟时间也取决于服务器/应用的负载。所以我推荐你在一个刚刚重启过并且处于峰值时间的服务器上来运行测试，以便得到更加准确的度量。现在你可以在你的所有设备上互相比较这些测试结果了。 -####为什么服务器的吞吐率和延迟时间都这么差？### +###为什么服务器的吞吐率和延迟时间都这么差？### -低的数值并不意味着你在使用差劲的硬件。可能是HARDWARE RAID10的控制器缓存导致的。 +低的数值并不意味着你在使用差劲的硬件。可能是硬件 RAID10的控制器缓存导致的。 使用hdparm命令来查看硬盘缓存的读速度。 @@ -79,11 +81,12 @@ Fig.01: 使用dd命令获取的服务器吞吐率 输出样例： ![Fig.02: Linux hdparm command to test reading and caching disk performance](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/faq/2015/08/hdparam-output.jpg) -Fig.02: 检测硬盘读入以及缓存性能的Linux hdparm命令 -请再一次注意由于文件文件操作的缓存属性，你将总是会看到很高的读速度。 +*图02: 检测硬盘读入以及缓存性能的Linux hdparm命令* -**使用dd命令来测试读入速度** +请再次注意，由于文件文件操作的缓存属性，你将总是会看到很高的读速度。 + +###使用dd命令来测试读取速度### 为了获得精确的读测试数据，首先在测试前运行下列命令，来将缓存设置为无效： @@ -91,11 +94,11 @@ Fig.02: 检测硬盘读入以及缓存性能的Linux hdparm命令 echo 3 | sudo tee /proc/sys/vm/drop_caches time time dd if=/path/to/bigfile of=/dev/null bs=8k -**笔记本上的示例** +####笔记本上的示例#### 运行下列命令： - ### Cache存在的Debian系统笔记本吞吐率### + ### 带有Cache的Debian系统笔记本吞吐率### dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/laptop.bin bs=1G count=1 oflag=direct ###使cache失效### @@ -104,10 +107,11 @@ Fig.02: 检测硬盘读入以及缓存性能的Linux hdparm命令 ###没有Cache的Debian系统笔记本吞吐率### dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/laptop.bin bs=1G count=1 oflag=direct -**苹果OS X Unix(Macbook pro)的例子** +####苹果OS X Unix(Macbook pro)的例子#### GNU dd has many more options but OS X/BSD and Unix-like dd command need to run as follows to test real disk I/O and not memory add sync option as follows: -GNU dd命令有其他许多选项但是在 OS X/BSD 以及类Unix中， dd命令需要像下面那样执行来检测去除掉内存地址同步的硬盘真实I/O性能： + +GNU dd命令有其他许多选项，但是在 OS X/BSD 以及类Unix中， dd命令需要像下面那样执行来检测去除掉内存地址同步的硬盘真实I/O性能： ## 运行这个命令2-3次来获得更好地结果 ### time sh -c "dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/testfile bs=100k count=1k && sync" @@ -124,26 +128,29 @@ GNU dd命令有其他许多选项但是在 OS X/BSD 以及类Unix中， dd命令 本人Macbook Pro的写速度是635346520字节（635.347MB/s)。 -**不喜欢用命令行?^_^** +###不喜欢用命令行?\^_^### 你可以在Linux或基于Unix的系统上使用disk utility(gnome-disk-utility)这款工具来得到同样的信息。下面的那个图就是在我的Fedora Linux v22 VM上截取的。 -**图形化方法** +####图形化方法#### 点击“Activites”或者“Super”按键来在桌面和Activites视图间切换。输入“Disks” ![Fig.03: Start the Gnome disk utility](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/faq/2015/08/disk-1.jpg) -Fig.03: 打开Gnome硬盘工具 + +*图03: 打开Gnome硬盘工具* 在左边的面板上选择你的硬盘，点击configure按钮，然后点击“Benchmark partition”： ![Fig.04: Benchmark disk/partition](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/faq/2015/08/disks-2.jpg) -Fig.04: 评测硬盘/分区 -最后，点击“Start Benchmark...”按钮（你可能被要求输入管理员用户名和密码）： +*图04: 评测硬盘/分区* + +最后，点击“Start Benchmark...”按钮（你可能需要输入管理员用户名和密码）： ![Fig.05: Final benchmark result](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/faq/2015/08/disks-3.jpg) -Fig.05: 最终的评测结果 + +*图05: 最终的评测结果* 如果你要问，我推荐使用哪种命令和方法？ @@ -158,7 +165,7 @@ via: http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/howto-linux-unix-test-disk-performance-with-dd 作者：Vivek Gite 译者：[DongShuaike](https://github.com/DongShuaike) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/Part 1 - Introduction to RAID, Concepts of RAID and RAID Levels.md b/published/201508/Part 1 - Introduction to RAID, Concepts of RAID and RAID Levels.md similarity index 100% rename from published/Part 1 - Introduction to RAID, Concepts of RAID and RAID Levels.md rename to published/201508/Part 1 - Introduction to RAID, Concepts of RAID and RAID Levels.md diff --git a/published/Part 2 - Creating Software RAID0 (Stripe) on ‘Two Devices’ Using ‘mdadm’ Tool in Linux.md b/published/201508/Part 2 - Creating Software RAID0 (Stripe) on ‘Two Devices’ Using ‘mdadm’ Tool in Linux.md similarity index 100% rename from published/Part 2 - Creating Software RAID0 (Stripe) on ‘Two Devices’ Using ‘mdadm’ Tool in Linux.md rename to published/201508/Part 2 - Creating Software RAID0 (Stripe) on ‘Two Devices’ Using ‘mdadm’ Tool in Linux.md diff --git a/published/Part 3 - Setting up RAID 1 (Mirroring) using 'Two Disks' in Linux.md b/published/201508/Part 3 - Setting up RAID 1 (Mirroring) using 'Two Disks' in Linux.md similarity index 100% rename from published/Part 3 - Setting up RAID 1 (Mirroring) using 'Two Disks' in Linux.md rename to published/201508/Part 3 - Setting up RAID 1 (Mirroring) using 'Two Disks' in Linux.md diff --git a/translated/tech/RAID/Part 4 - Creating RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity) in Linux.md b/published/201508/Part 4 - Creating RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity) in Linux.md similarity index 50% rename from translated/tech/RAID/Part 4 - Creating RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity) in Linux.md rename to published/201508/Part 4 - Creating RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity) in Linux.md index 7de5199a08..34ac7f18b2 100644 --- a/translated/tech/RAID/Part 4 - Creating RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity) in Linux.md +++ b/published/201508/Part 4 - Creating RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity) in Linux.md @@ -1,89 +1,90 @@ - -在 Linux 中创建 RAID 5（条带化与分布式奇偶校验） - 第4部分 +在 Linux 下使用 RAID（四）：创建 RAID 5（条带化与分布式奇偶校验） ================================================================================ -在 RAID 5 中，条带化数据跨多个驱磁盘使用分布式奇偶校验。分布式奇偶校验的条带化意味着它将奇偶校验信息和条带中的数据分布在多个磁盘上，它将有很好的数据冗余。 + +在 RAID 5 中，数据条带化后存储在分布式奇偶校验的多个磁盘上。分布式奇偶校验的条带化意味着它将奇偶校验信息和条带化数据分布在多个磁盘上，这样会有很好的数据冗余。 ![Setup Raid 5 in CentOS](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/setup-raid-5-in-linux.jpg) -在 Linux 中配置 RAID 5 +*在 Linux 中配置 RAID 5* -对于此 RAID 级别它至少应该有三个或更多个磁盘。RAID 5 通常被用于大规模生产环境中花费更多的成本来提供更好的数据冗余性能。 +对于此 RAID 级别它至少应该有三个或更多个磁盘。RAID 5 通常被用于大规模生产环境中，以花费更多的成本来提供更好的数据冗余性能。 #### 什么是奇偶校验？ #### -奇偶校验是在数据存储中检测错误最简单的一个方法。奇偶校验信息存储在每个磁盘中，比如说，我们有4个磁盘，其中一个磁盘空间被分割去存储所有磁盘的奇偶校验信息。如果任何一个磁盘出现故障，我们可以通过更换故障磁盘后，从奇偶校验信息重建得到原来的数据。 +奇偶校验是在数据存储中检测错误最简单的常见方式。奇偶校验信息存储在每个磁盘中，比如说，我们有4个磁盘，其中相当于一个磁盘大小的空间被分割去存储所有磁盘的奇偶校验信息。如果任何一个磁盘出现故障，我们可以通过更换故障磁盘后，从奇偶校验信息重建得到原来的数据。 #### RAID 5 的优点和缺点 #### -- 提供更好的性能 +- 提供更好的性能。 - 支持冗余和容错。 - 支持热备份。 -- 将失去一个磁盘的容量存储奇偶校验信息。 +- 将用掉一个磁盘的容量存储奇偶校验信息。 - 单个磁盘发生故障后不会丢失数据。我们可以更换故障硬盘后从奇偶校验信息中重建数据。 -- 事务处理读操作会更快。 -- 由于奇偶校验占用资源，写操作将是缓慢的。 +- 适合于面向事务处理的环境，读操作会更快。 +- 由于奇偶校验占用资源，写操作会慢一些。 - 重建需要很长的时间。 #### 要求 #### + 创建 RAID 5 最少需要3个磁盘，你也可以添加更多的磁盘，前提是你要有多端口的专用硬件 RAID 控制器。在这里，我们使用“mdadm”包来创建软件 RAID。 -mdadm 是一个允许我们在 Linux 下配置和管理 RAID 设备的包。默认情况下 RAID 没有可用的配置文件，我们在创建和配置 RAID 后必须将配置文件保存在一个单独的文件中，例如：mdadm.conf。 +mdadm 是一个允许我们在 Linux 下配置和管理 RAID 设备的包。默认情况下没有 RAID 的配置文件，我们在创建和配置 RAID 后必须将配置文件保存在一个单独的文件 mdadm.conf 中。 在进一步学习之前，我建议你通过下面的文章去了解 Linux 中 RAID 的基础知识。 -- [Basic Concepts of RAID in Linux – Part 1][1] -- [Creating RAID 0 (Stripe) in Linux – Part 2][2] -- [Setting up RAID 1 (Mirroring) in Linux – Part 3][3] +- [介绍 RAID 的级别和概念][1] +- [使用 mdadm 工具创建软件 RAID 0 （条带化）][2] +- [用两块磁盘创建 RAID 1（镜像）][3] #### 我的服务器设置 #### - Operating System : CentOS 6.5 Final - IP Address : 192.168.0.227 - Hostname : rd5.tecmintlocal.com - Disk 1 [20GB] : /dev/sdb - Disk 2 [20GB] : /dev/sdc - Disk 3 [20GB] : /dev/sdd + 操作系统 : CentOS 6.5 Final + IP 地址 : 192.168.0.227 + 主机名 : rd5.tecmintlocal.com + 磁盘 1 [20GB] : /dev/sdb + 磁盘 2 [20GB] : /dev/sdc + 磁盘 3 [20GB] : /dev/sdd -这篇文章是 RAID 系列9教程的第4部分，在这里我们要建立一个软件 RAID 5（分布式奇偶校验）使用三个20GB（名为/dev/sdb, /dev/sdc 和 /dev/sdd）的磁盘在 Linux 系统或服务器中上。 +这是9篇系列教程的第4部分，在这里我们要在 Linux 系统或服务器上使用三个20GB（名为/dev/sdb, /dev/sdc 和 /dev/sdd）的磁盘建立带有分布式奇偶校验的软件 RAID 5。 ### 第1步：安装 mdadm 并检验磁盘 ### -1.正如我们前面所说，我们使用 CentOS 6.5 Final 版本来创建 RAID 设置，但同样的做法也适用于其他 Linux 发行版。 +1、 正如我们前面所说，我们使用 CentOS 6.5 Final 版本来创建 RAID 设置，但同样的做法也适用于其他 Linux 发行版。 # lsb_release -a # ifconfig | grep inet ![Setup Raid 5 in CentOS](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/CentOS-6.5-Summary.png) -CentOS 6.5 摘要 +*CentOS 6.5 摘要* -2. 如果你按照我们的 RAID 系列去配置的，我们假设你已经安装了“mdadm”包，如果没有，根据你的 Linux 发行版使用下面的命令安装。 +2、 如果你按照我们的 RAID 系列去配置的，我们假设你已经安装了“mdadm”包，如果没有，根据你的 Linux 发行版使用下面的命令安装。 - # yum install mdadm [on RedHat systems] - # apt-get install mdadm [on Debain systems] + # yum install mdadm [在 RedHat 系统] + # apt-get install mdadm [在 Debain 系统] -3. “mdadm”包安装后，先使用‘fdisk‘命令列出我们在系统上增加的三个20GB的硬盘。 +3、 “mdadm”包安装后，先使用`fdisk`命令列出我们在系统上增加的三个20GB的硬盘。 # fdisk -l | grep sd ![Install mdadm Tool in CentOS](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Install-mdadm-Tool.png) -安装 mdadm 工具 +*安装 mdadm 工具* -4. 现在该检查这三个磁盘是否存在 RAID 块，使用下面的命令来检查。 +4、 现在该检查这三个磁盘是否存在 RAID 块，使用下面的命令来检查。 # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-d] - # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd + # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd # 或 ![Examine Drives For Raid](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Examine-Drives-For-Raid.png) -检查 Raid 磁盘 +*检查 Raid 磁盘* **注意**: 上面的图片说明，没有检测到任何超级块。所以，这三个磁盘中没有定义 RAID。让我们现在开始创建一个吧！ ### 第2步：为磁盘创建 RAID 分区 ### -5. 首先，在创建 RAID 前我们要为磁盘分区（/dev/sdb, /dev/sdc 和 /dev/sdd），在进行下一步之前，先使用‘fdisk’命令进行分区。 +5、 首先，在创建 RAID 前磁盘（/dev/sdb, /dev/sdc 和 /dev/sdd）必须有分区，因此，在进行下一步之前，先使用`fdisk`命令进行分区。 # fdisk /dev/sdb # fdisk /dev/sdc @@ -93,20 +94,20 @@ CentOS 6.5 摘要 请按照下面的说明在 /dev/sdb 硬盘上创建分区。 -- 按 ‘n’ 创建新的分区。 -- 然后按 ‘P’ 选择主分区。选择主分区是因为还没有定义过分区。 -- 接下来选择分区号为1。默认就是1. +- 按 `n` 创建新的分区。 +- 然后按 `P` 选择主分区。选择主分区是因为还没有定义过分区。 +- 接下来选择分区号为1。默认就是1。 - 这里是选择柱面大小，我们没必要选择指定的大小，因为我们需要为 RAID 使用整个分区，所以只需按两次 Enter 键默认将整个容量分配给它。 -- 然后，按 ‘P’ 来打印创建好的分区。 -- 改变分区类型，按 ‘L’可以列出所有可用的类型。 -- 按 ‘t’ 修改分区类型。 -- 这里使用‘fd’设置为 RAID 的类型。 -- 然后再次使用‘p’查看我们所做的更改。 -- 使用‘w’保存更改。 +- 然后，按 `P` 来打印创建好的分区。 +- 改变分区类型，按 `L`可以列出所有可用的类型。 +- 按 `t` 修改分区类型。 +- 这里使用`fd`设置为 RAID 的类型。 +- 然后再次使用`p`查看我们所做的更改。 +- 使用`w`保存更改。 ![Create sdb Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-sdb-Partition1.png) -创建 sdb 分区 +*创建 sdb 分区* **注意**: 我们仍要按照上面的步骤来创建 sdc 和 sdd 的分区。 @@ -118,7 +119,7 @@ CentOS 6.5 摘要 ![Create sdc Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-sdc-Partition1.png) -创建 sdc 分区 +*创建 sdc 分区* #### 创建 /dev/sdd 分区 #### @@ -126,93 +127,87 @@ CentOS 6.5 摘要 ![Create sdd Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-sdd-Partition1.png) -创建 sdd 分区 +*创建 sdd 分区* -6. 创建分区后，检查三个磁盘 sdb, sdc, sdd 的变化。 +6、 创建分区后，检查三个磁盘 sdb, sdc, sdd 的变化。 # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd - - or - - # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-c] + # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-c] # 或 ![Check Partition Changes](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Changes-on-Partitions.png) -检查磁盘变化 +*检查磁盘变化* **注意**: 在上面的图片中，磁盘的类型是 fd。 -7.现在在新创建的分区检查 RAID 块。如果没有检测到超级块，我们就能够继续下一步，创建一个新的 RAID 5 的设置在这些磁盘中。 +7、 现在在新创建的分区检查 RAID 块。如果没有检测到超级块，我们就能够继续下一步，在这些磁盘中创建一个新的 RAID 5 配置。 ![Check Raid on Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-on-Partitions.png) -在分区中检查 Raid +*在分区中检查 RAID * ### 第3步：创建 md 设备 md0 ### -8. 现在创建一个 RAID 设备“md0”（即 /dev/md0）使用所有新创建的分区(sdb1, sdc1 and sdd1) ，使用以下命令。 +8、 现在使用所有新创建的分区(sdb1, sdc1 和 sdd1)创建一个 RAID 设备“md0”（即 /dev/md0），使用以下命令。 # mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=5 --raid-devices=3 /dev/sdb1 /dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 - - or - - # mdadm -C /dev/md0 -l=5 -n=3 /dev/sd[b-d]1 + # mdadm -C /dev/md0 -l=5 -n=3 /dev/sd[b-d]1 # 或 -9. 创建 RAID 设备后，检查并确认 RAID，包括设备和从 mdstat 中输出的 RAID 级别。 +9、 创建 RAID 设备后，检查并确认 RAID，从 mdstat 中输出中可以看到包括的设备的 RAID 级别。 # cat /proc/mdstat ![Verify Raid Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-Raid-Device.png) -验证 Raid 设备 +*验证 Raid 设备* -如果你想监视当前的创建过程，你可以使用‘watch‘命令，使用 watch ‘cat /proc/mdstat‘，它会在屏幕上显示且每隔1秒刷新一次。 +如果你想监视当前的创建过程，你可以使用`watch`命令，将 `cat /proc/mdstat` 传递给它，它会在屏幕上显示且每隔1秒刷新一次。 # watch -n1 cat /proc/mdstat ![Monitor Raid Process](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Monitor-Raid-Process.png) -监控 Raid 5 过程 +*监控 RAID 5 构建过程* ![Raid 5 Process Summary](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Raid-Process-Summary.png) -Raid 5 过程概要 +*Raid 5 过程概要* -10. 创建 RAID 后，使用以下命令验证 RAID 设备 +10、 创建 RAID 后，使用以下命令验证 RAID 设备 # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-d]1 ![Verify Raid Level](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-Raid-Level.png) -验证 Raid 级别 +*验证 Raid 级别* **注意**: 因为它显示三个磁盘的信息，上述命令的输出会有点长。 -11. 接下来，验证 RAID 阵列的假设，这包含正在运行 RAID 的设备，并开始重新同步。 +11、 接下来，验证 RAID 阵列，假定包含 RAID 的设备正在运行并已经开始了重新同步。 # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 ![Verify Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-Raid-Array.png) -验证 Raid 阵列 +*验证 RAID 阵列* ### 第4步：为 md0 创建文件系统### -12. 在挂载前为“md0”设备创建 ext4 文件系统。 +12、 在挂载前为“md0”设备创建 ext4 文件系统。 # mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0 ![Create md0 Filesystem](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-md0-Filesystem.png) -创建 md0 文件系统 +*创建 md0 文件系统* -13.现在，在‘/mnt‘下创建目录 raid5，然后挂载文件系统到 /mnt/raid5/ 下并检查下挂载点的文件，你会看到 lost+found 目录。 +13、 现在，在`/mnt`下创建目录 raid5，然后挂载文件系统到 /mnt/raid5/ 下，并检查挂载点下的文件，你会看到 lost+found 目录。 # mkdir /mnt/raid5 # mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid5/ # ls -l /mnt/raid5/ -14. 在挂载点 /mnt/raid5 下创建几个文件，并在其中一个文件中添加一些内容然后去验证。 +14、 在挂载点 /mnt/raid5 下创建几个文件，并在其中一个文件中添加一些内容然后去验证。 # touch /mnt/raid5/raid5_tecmint_{1..5} # ls -l /mnt/raid5/ @@ -222,9 +217,9 @@ Raid 5 过程概要 ![Mount Raid 5 Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Mount-Raid-Device.png) -挂载 Raid 设备 +*挂载 RAID 设备* -15. 我们需要在 fstab 中添加条目，否则系统重启后将不会显示我们的挂载点。然后编辑 fstab 文件添加条目，在文件尾追加以下行，如下图所示。挂载点会根据你环境的不同而不同。 +15、 我们需要在 fstab 中添加条目，否则系统重启后将不会显示我们的挂载点。编辑 fstab 文件添加条目，在文件尾追加以下行。挂载点会根据你环境的不同而不同。 # vim /etc/fstab @@ -232,19 +227,19 @@ Raid 5 过程概要 ![Raid 5 Automount](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Raid-Device-Automount.png) -自动挂载 Raid 5 +*自动挂载 RAID 5* -16. 接下来，运行‘mount -av‘命令检查 fstab 条目中是否有错误。 +16、 接下来，运行`mount -av`命令检查 fstab 条目中是否有错误。 # mount -av ![Check Fstab Errors](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Fstab-Errors.png) -检查 Fstab 错误 +*检查 Fstab 错误* ### 第5步：保存 Raid 5 的配置 ### -17. 在前面章节已经说过，默认情况下 RAID 没有配置文件。我们必须手动保存。如果此步不跟 RAID 设备将不会存在 md0，它将会跟一些其他数子。 +17、 在前面章节已经说过，默认情况下 RAID 没有配置文件。我们必须手动保存。如果此步中没有跟随不属于 md0 的 RAID 设备，它会是一些其他随机数字。 所以，我们必须要在系统重新启动之前保存配置。如果配置保存它在系统重新启动时会被加载到内核中然后 RAID 也将被加载。 @@ -252,17 +247,17 @@ Raid 5 过程概要 ![Save Raid 5 Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Save-Raid-5-Configuration.png) -保存 Raid 5 配置 +*保存 RAID 5 配置* -注意：保存配置将保持 RAID 级别的稳定性在 md0 设备中。 +注意：保存配置将保持 md0 设备的 RAID 级别稳定不变。 ### 第6步：添加备用磁盘 ### -18.备用磁盘有什么用？它是非常有用的，如果我们有一个备用磁盘，当我们阵列中的任何一个磁盘发生故障后，这个备用磁盘会主动添加并重建进程，并从其他磁盘上同步数据，所以我们可以在这里看到冗余。 +18、 备用磁盘有什么用？它是非常有用的，如果我们有一个备用磁盘，当我们阵列中的任何一个磁盘发生故障后，这个备用磁盘会进入激活重建过程，并从其他磁盘上同步数据，这样就有了冗余。 更多关于添加备用磁盘和检查 RAID 5 容错的指令，请阅读下面文章中的第6步和第7步。 -- [Add Spare Drive to Raid 5 Setup][4] +- [在 RAID 5 中添加备用磁盘][4] ### 结论 ### @@ -274,12 +269,12 @@ via: http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid-5-in-linux/ 作者：[Babin Lonston][a] 译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 [a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/babinlonston/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/understanding-raid-setup-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid0-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid1-in-linux/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-6085-1.html +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6087-1.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-6093-1.html [4]:http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid-6-in-linux/ diff --git a/translated/tech/RAID/Part 5 - Setup RAID Level 6 (Striping with Double Distributed Parity) in Linux.md b/published/201508/Part 5 - Setup RAID Level 6 (Striping with Double Distributed Parity) in Linux.md similarity index 50% rename from translated/tech/RAID/Part 5 - Setup RAID Level 6 (Striping with Double Distributed Parity) in Linux.md rename to published/201508/Part 5 - Setup RAID Level 6 (Striping with Double Distributed Parity) in Linux.md index 1890a242e2..d222a997e5 100644 --- a/translated/tech/RAID/Part 5 - Setup RAID Level 6 (Striping with Double Distributed Parity) in Linux.md +++ b/published/201508/Part 5 - Setup RAID Level 6 (Striping with Double Distributed Parity) in Linux.md @@ -1,77 +1,78 @@ - -在 Linux 中安装 RAID 6（条带化双分布式奇偶校验） - 第5部分 +在 Linux 下使用 RAID（五）：安装 RAID 6（条带化双分布式奇偶校验） ================================================================================ -RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两个磁盘发生故障后依然有容错能力。两并列的磁盘发生故障时，系统的关键任务仍然能运行。它与 RAID 5 相似，但性能更健壮，因为它多用了一个磁盘来进行奇偶校验。 -在之前的文章中，我们已经在 RAID 5 看了分布式奇偶校验，但在本文中，我们将看到的是 RAID 6 双分布式奇偶校验。不要期望比其他 RAID 有额外的性能，我们仍然需要安装一个专用的 RAID 控制器。在 RAID 6 中，即使我们失去了2个磁盘，我们仍可以取回数据通过更换磁盘，然后从校验中构建数据。 +RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即使两个磁盘发生故障后依然有容错能力。在两个磁盘同时发生故障时，系统的关键任务仍然能运行。它与 RAID 5 相似，但性能更健壮，因为它多用了一个磁盘来进行奇偶校验。 + +在之前的文章中，我们已经在 RAID 5 看了分布式奇偶校验，但在本文中，我们将看到的是 RAID 6 双分布式奇偶校验。不要期望比其他 RAID 有更好的性能，除非你也安装了一个专用的 RAID 控制器。在 RAID 6 中，即使我们失去了2个磁盘，我们仍可以通过更换磁盘，从校验中构建数据，然后取回数据。 ![Setup RAID 6 in CentOS](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Setup-RAID-6-in-Linux.jpg) -在 Linux 中安装 RAID 6 +*在 Linux 中安装 RAID 6* -要建立一个 RAID 6，一组最少需要4个磁盘。RAID 6 甚至在有些设定中会有多组磁盘，当读取数据时，它会同时从所有磁盘读取，所以读取速度会更快，当写数据时，因为它要将数据写在条带化的多个磁盘上，所以性能会较差。 +要建立一个 RAID 6，一组最少需要4个磁盘。RAID 6 甚至在有些组中会有更多磁盘，这样将多个硬盘捆在一起，当读取数据时，它会同时从所有磁盘读取，所以读取速度会更快，当写数据时，因为它要将数据写在条带化的多个磁盘上，所以性能会较差。 -现在，很多人都在讨论为什么我们需要使用 RAID 6，它的性能和其他 RAID 相比并不太好。提出这个问题首先需要知道的是，如果需要高容错的必须选择 RAID 6。在每一个对数据库的高可用性要求较高的环境中，他们需要 RAID 6 因为数据库是最重要，无论花费多少都需要保护其安全，它在视频流环境中也是非常有用的。 +现在，很多人都在讨论为什么我们需要使用 RAID 6，它的性能和其他 RAID 相比并不太好。提出这个问题首先需要知道的是，如果需要高容错性就选择 RAID 6。在每一个用于数据库的高可用性要求较高的环境中，他们需要 RAID 6 因为数据库是最重要，无论花费多少都需要保护其安全，它在视频流环境中也是非常有用的。 #### RAID 6 的的优点和缺点 #### -- 性能很不错。 -- RAID 6 非常昂贵，因为它要求两个独立的磁盘用于奇偶校验功能。 +- 性能不错。 +- RAID 6 比较昂贵，因为它要求两个独立的磁盘用于奇偶校验功能。 - 将失去两个磁盘的容量来保存奇偶校验信息（双奇偶校验）。 -- 不存在数据丢失，即时两个磁盘损坏。我们可以在更换损坏的磁盘后从校验中重建数据。 +- 即使两个磁盘损坏，数据也不会丢失。我们可以在更换损坏的磁盘后从校验中重建数据。 - 读性能比 RAID 5 更好，因为它从多个磁盘读取，但对于没有专用的 RAID 控制器的设备写性能将非常差。 #### 要求 #### -要创建一个 RAID 6 最少需要4个磁盘.你也可以添加更多的磁盘，但你必须有专用的 RAID 控制器。在软件 RAID 中，我们在 RAID 6 中不会得到更好的性能，所以我们需要一个物理 RAID 控制器。 +要创建一个 RAID 6 最少需要4个磁盘。你也可以添加更多的磁盘，但你必须有专用的 RAID 控制器。使用软件 RAID 我们在 RAID 6 中不会得到更好的性能，所以我们需要一个物理 RAID 控制器。 -这些是新建一个 RAID 需要的设置，我们建议先看完以下 RAID 文章。 +如果你新接触 RAID 设置，我们建议先看完以下 RAID 文章。 -- [Linux 中 RAID 的基本概念 – 第一部分][1] -- [在 Linux 上创建软件 RAID 0 (条带化) – 第二部分][2] -- [在 Linux 上创建软件 RAID 1 (镜像) – 第三部分][3] +- [介绍 RAID 的级别和概念][1] +- [使用 mdadm 工具创建软件 RAID 0 （条带化）][2] +- [用两块磁盘创建 RAID 1（镜像）][3] +- [创建 RAID 5（条带化与分布式奇偶校验）](4) -#### My Server Setup #### +#### 我的服务器设置 #### - Operating System : CentOS 6.5 Final - IP Address : 192.168.0.228 - Hostname : rd6.tecmintlocal.com - Disk 1 [20GB] : /dev/sdb - Disk 2 [20GB] : /dev/sdc - Disk 3 [20GB] : /dev/sdd - Disk 4 [20GB] : /dev/sde + 操作系统 : CentOS 6.5 Final + IP 地址 : 192.168.0.228 + 主机名 : rd6.tecmintlocal.com + 磁盘 1 [20GB] : /dev/sdb + 磁盘 2 [20GB] : /dev/sdc + 磁盘 3 [20GB] : /dev/sdd + 磁盘 4 [20GB] : /dev/sde -这篇文章是9系列 RAID 教程的第5部分，在这里我们将看到我们如何在 Linux 系统或者服务器上创建和设置软件 RAID 6 或条带化双分布式奇偶校验，使用四个 20GB 的磁盘 /dev/sdb, /dev/sdc, /dev/sdd 和 /dev/sde. +这是9篇系列教程的第5部分，在这里我们将看到如何在 Linux 系统或者服务器上使用四个 20GB 的磁盘（名为 /dev/sdb、 /dev/sdc、 /dev/sdd 和 /dev/sde）创建和设置软件 RAID 6 （条带化双分布式奇偶校验）。 ### 第1步：安装 mdadm 工具，并检查磁盘 ### -1.如果你按照我们最进的两篇 RAID 文章（第2篇和第3篇），我们已经展示了如何安装‘mdadm‘工具。如果你直接看的这篇文章，我们先来解释下在Linux系统中如何使用‘mdadm‘工具来创建和管理 RAID，首先根据你的 Linux 发行版使用以下命令来安装。 +1、 如果你按照我们最进的两篇 RAID 文章（第2篇和第3篇），我们已经展示了如何安装`mdadm`工具。如果你直接看的这篇文章，我们先来解释下在 Linux 系统中如何使用`mdadm`工具来创建和管理 RAID，首先根据你的 Linux 发行版使用以下命令来安装。 - # yum install mdadm [on RedHat systems] - # apt-get install mdadm [on Debain systems] + # yum install mdadm [在 RedHat 系统] + # apt-get install mdadm [在 Debain 系统] -2.安装该工具后，然后来验证需要的四个磁盘，我们将会使用下面的‘fdisk‘命令来检验用于创建 RAID 的磁盘。 +2、 安装该工具后，然后来验证所需的四个磁盘，我们将会使用下面的`fdisk`命令来检查用于创建 RAID 的磁盘。 # fdisk -l | grep sd ![Check Hard Disk in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-Linux-Disks.png) -在 Linux 中检查磁盘 +*在 Linux 中检查磁盘* -3.在创建 RAID 磁盘前，先检查下我们的磁盘是否创建过 RAID 分区。 +3、 在创建 RAID 磁盘前，先检查下我们的磁盘是否创建过 RAID 分区。 # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e] - # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd /dev/sde + # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd /dev/sde # 或 ![Check Raid on Disk](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Disk-Raid.png) -在磁盘上检查 Raid 分区 +*在磁盘上检查 RAID 分区* **注意**: 在上面的图片中，没有检测到任何 super-block 或者说在四个磁盘上没有 RAID 存在。现在我们开始创建 RAID 6。 ### 第2步：为 RAID 6 创建磁盘分区 ### -4.现在为 raid 创建分区‘/dev/sdb‘, ‘/dev/sdc‘, ‘/dev/sdd‘ 和 ‘/dev/sde‘使用下面 fdisk 命令。在这里，我们将展示如何创建分区在 sdb 磁盘，同样的步骤也适用于其他分区。 +4、 现在在 `/dev/sdb`, `/dev/sdc`, `/dev/sdd` 和 `/dev/sde`上为 RAID 创建分区，使用下面的 fdisk 命令。在这里，我们将展示如何在 sdb 磁盘创建分区，同样的步骤也适用于其他分区。 **创建 /dev/sdb 分区** @@ -79,20 +80,20 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 请按照说明进行操作，如下图所示创建分区。 -- 按 ‘n’ 创建新的分区。 -- 然后按 ‘P’ 选择主分区。 +- 按 `n`创建新的分区。 +- 然后按 `P` 选择主分区。 - 接下来选择分区号为1。 - 只需按两次回车键选择默认值即可。 -- 然后，按 ‘P’ 来打印创建好的分区。 -- 按 ‘L’，列出所有可用的类型。 -- 按 ‘t’ 去修改分区。 -- 键入 ‘fd’ 设置为 Linux 的 RAID 类型，然后按 Enter 确认。 -- 然后再次使用‘p’查看我们所做的更改。 -- 使用‘w’保存更改。 +- 然后，按 `P` 来打印创建好的分区。 +- 按 `L`，列出所有可用的类型。 +- 按 `t` 去修改分区。 +- 键入 `fd` 设置为 Linux 的 RAID 类型，然后按回车确认。 +- 然后再次使用`p`查看我们所做的更改。 +- 使用`w`保存更改。 ![Create sdb Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-sdb-Partition.png) -创建 /dev/sdb 分区 +*创建 /dev/sdb 分区* **创建 /dev/sdc 分区** @@ -100,7 +101,7 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Create sdc Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-sdc-Partition.png) -创建 /dev/sdc 分区 +*创建 /dev/sdc 分区* **创建 /dev/sdd 分区** @@ -108,7 +109,7 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Create sdd Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-sdd-Partition.png) -创建 /dev/sdd 分区 +*创建 /dev/sdd 分区* **创建 /dev/sde 分区** @@ -116,71 +117,67 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Create sde Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-sde-Partition.png) -创建 /dev/sde 分区 +*创建 /dev/sde 分区* -5.创建好分区后，检查磁盘的 super-blocks 是个好的习惯。如果 super-blocks 不存在我们可以按前面的创建一个新的 RAID。 +5、 创建好分区后，检查磁盘的 super-blocks 是个好的习惯。如果 super-blocks 不存在我们可以按前面的创建一个新的 RAID。 - # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e]1 - - - 或者 - - # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb1 /dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 /dev/sde1 + # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e]1 + # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb1 /dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 /dev/sde1 # 或 ![Check Raid on New Partitions](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-on-New-Partitions.png) -在新分区中检查 Raid +*在新分区中检查 RAID * ### 步骤3：创建 md 设备（RAID） ### -6，现在是时候来创建 RAID 设备‘md0‘ （即 /dev/md0）并应用 RAID 级别在所有新创建的分区中，确认 raid 使用以下命令。 +6、 现在可以使用以下命令创建 RAID 设备`md0` （即 /dev/md0），并在所有新创建的分区中应用 RAID 级别，然后确认 RAID 设置。 # mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=6 --raid-devices=4 /dev/sdb1 /dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 /dev/sde1 # cat /proc/mdstat ![Create Raid 6 Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-Raid-6-Device.png) -创建 Raid 6 设备 +*创建 Raid 6 设备* -7.你还可以使用 watch 命令来查看当前 raid 的进程，如下图所示。 +7、 你还可以使用 watch 命令来查看当前创建 RAID 的进程，如下图所示。 # watch -n1 cat /proc/mdstat ![Check Raid 6 Process](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-6-Process.png) -检查 Raid 6 进程 +*检查 RAID 6 创建过程* -8.使用以下命令验证 RAID 设备。 +8、 使用以下命令验证 RAID 设备。 -# mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e]1 + # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e]1 **注意**::上述命令将显示四个磁盘的信息，这是相当长的，所以没有截取其完整的输出。 -9.接下来，验证 RAID 阵列，以确认 re-syncing 被启动。 +9、 接下来，验证 RAID 阵列，以确认重新同步过程已经开始。 # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 ![Check Raid 6 Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-6-Array.png) -检查 Raid 6 阵列 +*检查 Raid 6 阵列* ### 第4步：在 RAID 设备上创建文件系统 ### -10.使用 ext4 为‘/dev/md0‘创建一个文件系统并将它挂载在 /mnt/raid5 。这里我们使用的是 ext4，但你可以根据你的选择使用任意类型的文件系统。 +10、 使用 ext4 为`/dev/md0`创建一个文件系统，并将它挂载在 /mnt/raid6 。这里我们使用的是 ext4，但你可以根据你的选择使用任意类型的文件系统。 # mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0 ![Create File System on Raid](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-File-System-on-Raid.png) -在 Raid 6 上创建文件系统 +*在 RAID 6 上创建文件系统* -11.挂载创建的文件系统到 /mnt/raid6，并验证挂载点下的文件，我们可以看到 lost+found 目录。 +11、 将创建的文件系统挂载到 /mnt/raid6，并验证挂载点下的文件，我们可以看到 lost+found 目录。 # mkdir /mnt/raid6 # mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid6/ # ls -l /mnt/raid6/ -12.在挂载点下创建一些文件，在任意文件中添加一些文字并验证其内容。 +12、 在挂载点下创建一些文件，在任意文件中添加一些文字并验证其内容。 # touch /mnt/raid6/raid6_test.txt # ls -l /mnt/raid6/ @@ -189,9 +186,9 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Verify Raid Content](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-Raid-Content.png) -验证 Raid 内容 +*验证 RAID 内容* -13.在 /etc/fstab 中添加以下条目使系统启动时自动挂载设备，环境不同挂载点可能会有所不同。 +13、 在 /etc/fstab 中添加以下条目使系统启动时自动挂载设备，操作系统环境不同挂载点可能会有所不同。 # vim /etc/fstab @@ -199,36 +196,37 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Automount Raid 6 Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Automount-Raid-Device.png) -自动挂载 Raid 6 设备 +*自动挂载 RAID 6 设备* -14.接下来，执行‘mount -a‘命令来验证 fstab 中的条目是否有错误。 +14、 接下来，执行`mount -a`命令来验证 fstab 中的条目是否有错误。 # mount -av ![Verify Raid Automount](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-Automount-Raid-Devices.png) -验证 Raid 是否自动挂载 +*验证 RAID 是否自动挂载* ### 第5步：保存 RAID 6 的配置 ### -15.请注意默认 RAID 没有配置文件。我们需要使用以下命令手动保存它，然后检查设备‘/dev/md0‘的状态。 +15、 请注意，默认情况下 RAID 没有配置文件。我们需要使用以下命令手动保存它，然后检查设备`/dev/md0`的状态。 # mdadm --detail --scan --verbose >> /etc/mdadm.conf + # cat /etc/mdadm.conf # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 ![Save Raid 6 Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-Status.png) -保存 Raid 6 配置 +*保存 RAID 6 配置* ![Check Raid 6 Status](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-Status.png) -检查 Raid 6 状态 +*检查 RAID 6 状态* ### 第6步：添加备用磁盘 ### -16.现在，它使用了4个磁盘，并且有两个作为奇偶校验信息来使用。在某些情况下，如果任意一个磁盘出现故障，我们仍可以得到数据，因为在 RAID 6 使用双奇偶校验。 +16、 现在，已经使用了4个磁盘，并且其中两个作为奇偶校验信息来使用。在某些情况下，如果任意一个磁盘出现故障，我们仍可以得到数据，因为在 RAID 6 使用双奇偶校验。 -如果第二个磁盘也出现故障，在第三块磁盘损坏前我们可以添加一个​​新的。它可以作为一个备用磁盘并入 RAID 集合，但我在创建 raid 集合前没有定义备用的磁盘。但是，在磁盘损坏后或者创建 RAId 集合时我们可以添加一块磁盘。现在，我们已经创建好了 RAID，下面让我演示如何添加备用磁盘。 +如果第二个磁盘也出现故障，在第三块磁盘损坏前我们可以添加一个​​新的。可以在创建 RAID 集时加入一个备用磁盘，但我在创建 RAID 集合前没有定义备用的磁盘。不过，我们可以在磁盘损坏后或者创建 RAID 集合时添加一块备用磁盘。现在，我们已经创建好了 RAID，下面让我演示如何添加备用磁盘。 为了达到演示的目的，我已经热插入了一个新的 HDD 磁盘（即 /dev/sdf），让我们来验证接入的磁盘。 @@ -236,15 +234,15 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Check New Disk](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-New-Disk.png) -检查新 Disk +*检查新磁盘* -17.现在再次确认新连接的磁盘没有配置过 RAID ，使用 mdadm 来检查。 +17、 现在再次确认新连接的磁盘没有配置过 RAID ，使用 mdadm 来检查。 # mdadm --examine /dev/sdf ![Check Raid on New Disk](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-on-New-Disk.png) -在新磁盘中检查 Raid +*在新磁盘中检查 RAID* **注意**: 像往常一样，我们早前已经为四个磁盘创建了分区，同样，我们使用 fdisk 命令为新插入的磁盘创建新分区。 @@ -252,9 +250,9 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Create sdf Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-Partition-on-sdf.png) -为 /dev/sdf 创建分区 +*为 /dev/sdf 创建分区* -18.在 /dev/sdf 创建新的分区后，在新分区上确认 raid，包括/dev/md0 raid 设备的备用磁盘，并验证添加的设备。 +18、 在 /dev/sdf 创建新的分区后，在新分区上确认没有 RAID，然后将备用磁盘添加到 RAID 设备 /dev/md0 中，并验证添加的设备。 # mdadm --examine /dev/sdf # mdadm --examine /dev/sdf1 @@ -263,19 +261,19 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Verify Raid on sdf Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-Raid-on-sdf.png) -在 sdf 分区上验证 Raid +*在 sdf 分区上验证 Raid* ![Add sdf Partition to Raid](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Add-sdf-Partition-to-Raid.png) -为 RAID 添加 sdf 分区 +*添加 sdf 分区到 RAID * ![Verify sdf Partition Details](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-sdf-Details.png) -验证 sdf 分区信息 +*验证 sdf 分区信息* ### 第7步：检查 RAID 6 容错 ### -19.现在，让我们检查备用驱动器是否能自动工作，当我们阵列中的任何一个磁盘出现故障时。为了测试，我亲自将一个磁盘模拟为故障设备。 +19、 现在，让我们检查备用驱动器是否能自动工作，当我们阵列中的任何一个磁盘出现故障时。为了测试，我将一个磁盘手工标记为故障设备。 在这里，我们标记 /dev/sdd1 为故障磁盘。 @@ -283,15 +281,15 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Check Raid 6 Fault Tolerance](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-6-Failover.png) -检查 Raid 6 容错 +*检查 RAID 6 容错* -20.让我们查看 RAID 的详细信息，并检查备用磁盘是否开始同步。 +20、 让我们查看 RAID 的详细信息，并检查备用磁盘是否开始同步。 # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 ![Check Auto Raid Syncing](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Auto-Raid-Syncing.png) -检查 Raid 自动同步 +*检查 RAID 自动同步* **哇塞!** 这里，我们看到备用磁盘激活了，并开始重建进程。在底部，我们可以看到有故障的磁盘 /dev/sdd1 标记为 faulty。可以使用下面的命令查看进程重建。 @@ -299,11 +297,11 @@ RAID 6 是 RAID 5 的升级版，它有两个分布式奇偶校验，即时两 ![Raid 6 Auto Syncing](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Raid-6-Auto-Syncing.png) -Raid 6 自动同步 +*RAID 6 自动同步* ### 结论: ### -在这里，我们看到了如何使用四个磁盘设置 RAID 6。这种 RAID 级别是具有高冗余的昂贵设置之一。在接下来的文章中，我们将看到如何建立一个嵌套的 RAID 10 甚至更多。至此，请继续关注 TECMINT。 +在这里，我们看到了如何使用四个磁盘设置 RAID 6。这种 RAID 级别是具有高冗余的昂贵设置之一。在接下来的文章中，我们将看到如何建立一个嵌套的 RAID 10 甚至更多。请继续关注。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -311,11 +309,12 @@ via: http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid-6-in-linux/ 作者：[Babin Lonston][a] 译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 [a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/babinlonston/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/understanding-raid-setup-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid0-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid1-in-linux/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-6085-1.html +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6087-1.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-6093-1.html +[4]:https://linux.cn/article-6102-1.html diff --git a/published/201508/Part 6 - Setting Up RAID 10 or 1+0 (Nested) in Linux.md b/published/201508/Part 6 - Setting Up RAID 10 or 1+0 (Nested) in Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c0b03f3dba --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/Part 6 - Setting Up RAID 10 or 1+0 (Nested) in Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,275 @@ +在 Linux 下使用 RAID（六）：设置 RAID 10 或 1 + 0（嵌套） +================================================================================ + +RAID 10 是组合 RAID 1 和 RAID 0 形成的。要设置 RAID 10，我们至少需要4个磁盘。在之前的文章中，我们已经看到了如何使用最少两个磁盘设置 RAID 1 和 RAID 0。 + +在这里，我们将使用最少4个磁盘组合 RAID 1 和 RAID 0 来设置 RAID 10。假设我们已经在用 RAID 10 创建的逻辑卷保存了一些数据。比如我们要保存数据 “TECMINT”，它将使用以下方法将其保存在4个磁盘中。 + +![Create Raid 10 in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/raid10.jpg) + +*在 Linux 中创建 Raid 10（LCTT 译注：此图有误，请参照文字说明和本系列第一篇文章）* + +RAID 10 是先做镜像，再做条带。因此，在 RAID 1 中，相同的数据将被写入到两个磁盘中，“T”将同时被写入到第一和第二个磁盘中。接着的数据被条带化到另外两个磁盘，“E”将被同时写入到第三和第四个磁盘中。它将继续循环此过程，“C”将同时被写入到第一和第二个磁盘，以此类推。 + +（LCTT 译注：原文中此处描述混淆有误，已经根据实际情况进行修改。） + +现在你已经了解 RAID 10 怎样组合 RAID 1 和 RAID 0 来工作的了。如果我们有4个20 GB 的磁盘，总共为 80 GB，但我们将只能得到40 GB 的容量，另一半的容量在构建 RAID 10 中丢失。 + +#### RAID 10 的优点和缺点 #### + +- 提供更好的性能。 +- 在 RAID 10 中我们将失去一半的磁盘容量。 +- 读与写的性能都很好，因为它会同时进行写入和读取。 +- 它能解决数据库的高 I/O 磁盘写操作。 + +#### 要求 #### + +在 RAID 10 中，我们至少需要4个磁盘，前2个磁盘为 RAID 1，其他2个磁盘为 RAID 0，就像我之前说的，RAID 10 仅仅是组合了 RAID 0和1。如果我们需要扩展 RAID 组，最少需要添加4个磁盘。 + +**我的服务器设置** + + 操作系统 : CentOS 6.5 Final + IP 地址 : 192.168.0.229 + 主机名 : rd10.tecmintlocal.com + 磁盘 1 [20GB] : /dev/sdd + 磁盘 2 [20GB] : /dev/sdc + 磁盘 3 [20GB] : /dev/sdd + 磁盘 4 [20GB] : /dev/sde + +有两种方法来设置 RAID 10，在这里两种方法我都会演示，但我更喜欢第一种方法，使用它来设置 RAID 10 更简单。 + +### 方法1：设置 RAID 10 ### + +1、 首先，使用以下命令确认所添加的4块磁盘没有被使用。 + + # ls -l /dev | grep sd + +2、 四个磁盘被检测后，然后来检查磁盘是否存在 RAID 分区。 + + # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e] + # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd /dev/sde # 或 + +![Verify 4 Added Disks](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-4-Added-Disks.png) + +*验证添加的4块磁盘* + +**注意**: 在上面的输出中，如果没有检测到 super-block 意味着在4块磁盘中没有定义过 RAID。 + +#### 第1步：为 RAID 分区 #### + +3、 现在，使用`fdisk`，命令为4个磁盘(/dev/sdb, /dev/sdc, /dev/sdd 和 /dev/sde)创建新分区。 + + # fdisk /dev/sdb + # fdisk /dev/sdc + # fdisk /dev/sdd + # fdisk /dev/sde + +#####为 /dev/sdb 创建分区##### + +我来告诉你如何使用 fdisk 为磁盘(/dev/sdb)进行分区，此步也适用于其他磁盘。 + + # fdisk /dev/sdb + +请使用以下步骤为 /dev/sdb 创建一个新的分区。 + +- 按 `n` 创建新的分区。 +- 然后按 `P` 选择主分区。 +- 接下来选择分区号为1。 +- 只需按两次回车键选择默认值即可。 +- 然后，按 `P` 来打印创建好的分区。 +- 按 `L`，列出所有可用的类型。 +- 按 `t` 去修改分区。 +- 键入 `fd` 设置为 Linux 的 RAID 类型，然后按 Enter 确认。 +- 然后再次使用`p`查看我们所做的更改。 +- 使用`w`保存更改。 + +![Disk sdb Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Disk-sdb-Partition.png) + +*为磁盘 sdb 分区* + +**注意**: 请使用上面相同的指令对其他磁盘(sdc, sdd sdd sde)进行分区。 + +4、 创建好4个分区后，需要使用下面的命令来检查磁盘是否存在 raid。 + + # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e] + # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd /dev/sde # 或 + + # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e]1 + # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb1 /dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 /dev/sde1 # 或 + +![Check All Disks for Raid](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-All-Disks-for-Raid.png) + +*检查磁盘* + +**注意**: 以上输出显示，新创建的四个分区中没有检测到 super-block，这意味着我们可以继续在这些磁盘上创建 RAID 10。 + +#### 第2步: 创建 RAID 设备 `md` #### + +5、 现在该创建一个`md`（即 /dev/md0）设备了，使用“mdadm” raid 管理工具。在创建设备之前，必须确保系统已经安装了`mdadm`工具，如果没有请使用下面的命令来安装。 + + # yum install mdadm [在 RedHat 系统] + # apt-get install mdadm [在 Debain 系统] + +`mdadm`工具安装完成后，可以使用下面的命令创建一个`md` raid 设备。 + + # mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=10 --raid-devices=4 /dev/sd[b-e]1 + +6、 接下来使用`cat`命令验证新创建的 raid 设备。 + + # cat /proc/mdstat + +![Create md raid Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-md-raid-Device.png) + +*创建 md RAID 设备* + +7、 接下来，使用下面的命令来检查4个磁盘。下面命令的输出会很长，因为它会显示4个磁盘的所有信息。 + + # mdadm --examine /dev/sd[b-e]1 + +8、 接下来，使用以下命令来查看 RAID 阵列的详细信息。 + + # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 + +![Check Raid Array Details](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-Array-Details.png) + +*查看 RAID 阵列详细信息* + +**注意**: 你在上面看到的结果，该 RAID 的状态是 active 和re-syncing。 + +#### 第3步：创建文件系统 #### + +9、 使用 ext4 作为`md0′的文件系统，并将它挂载到`/mnt/raid10`下。在这里，我用的是 ext4，你可以使用你想要的文件系统类型。 + + # mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0 + +![Create md Filesystem](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-md-Filesystem.png) + +*创建 md 文件系统* + +10、 在创建文件系统后，挂载文件系统到`/mnt/raid10`下，并使用`ls -l`命令列出挂载点下的内容。 + + # mkdir /mnt/raid10 + # mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid10/ + # ls -l /mnt/raid10/ + +接下来，在挂载点下创建一些文件，并在文件中添加些内容，然后检查内容。 + + # touch /mnt/raid10/raid10_files.txt + # ls -l /mnt/raid10/ + # echo "raid 10 setup with 4 disks" > /mnt/raid10/raid10_files.txt + # cat /mnt/raid10/raid10_files.txt + +![Mount md Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Mount-md-Device.png) + +*挂载 md 设备* + +11、 要想自动挂载，打开`/etc/fstab`文件并添加下面的条目，挂载点根据你环境的不同来添加。使用 wq! 保存并退出。 + + # vim /etc/fstab + + /dev/md0 /mnt/raid10 ext4 defaults 0 0 + +![AutoMount md Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/AutoMount-md-Device.png) + +*挂载 md 设备* + +12、 接下来，在重新启动系统前使用`mount -a`来确认`/etc/fstab`文件是否有错误。 + + # mount -av + +![Check Errors in Fstab](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Errors-in-Fstab.png) + +*检查 Fstab 中的错误* + +#### 第四步：保存 RAID 配置 #### + +13、 默认情况下 RAID 没有配置文件，所以我们需要在上述步骤完成后手动保存它。 + + # mdadm --detail --scan --verbose >> /etc/mdadm.conf + +![Save Raid10 Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Save-Raid10-Configuration.png) + +*保存 RAID10 的配置* + +就这样，我们使用方法1创建完了 RAID 10，这种方法是比较容易的。现在，让我们使用方法2来设置 RAID 10。 + +### 方法2：创建 RAID 10 ### + +1、 在方法2中，我们必须定义2组 RAID 1，然后我们需要使用这些创建好的 RAID 1 的集合来定义一个 RAID 0。在这里，我们将要做的是先创建2个镜像（RAID1），然后创建 RAID0 （条带化）。 + +首先，列出所有的可用于创建 RAID 10 的磁盘。 + + # ls -l /dev | grep sd + +![List 4 Devices](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/List-4-Devices.png) + +*列出了 4 个设备* + +2、 将4个磁盘使用`fdisk`命令进行分区。对于如何分区，您可以按照上面的第1步。 + + # fdisk /dev/sdb + # fdisk /dev/sdc + # fdisk /dev/sdd + # fdisk /dev/sde + +3、 在完成4个磁盘的分区后，现在检查磁盘是否存在 RAID块。 + + # mdadm --examine /dev/sd[b-e] + # mdadm --examine /dev/sd[b-e]1 + +![Examine 4 Disks](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Examine-4-Disks.png) + +*检查 4 个磁盘* + +#### 第1步：创建 RAID 1 #### + +4、 首先，使用4块磁盘创建2组 RAID 1，一组为`sdb1′和 `sdc1′，另一组是`sdd1′ 和 `sde1′。 + + # mdadm --create /dev/md1 --metadata=1.2 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sd[b-c]1 + # mdadm --create /dev/md2 --metadata=1.2 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sd[d-e]1 + # cat /proc/mdstat + +![Creating Raid 1](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Creating-Raid-1.png) + +*创建 RAID 1* + +![Check Details of Raid 1](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Creating-Raid-1.png) + +*查看 RAID 1 的详细信息* + +#### 第2步：创建 RAID 0 #### + +5、 接下来，使用 md1 和 md2 来创建 RAID 0。 + + # mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=0 --raid-devices=2 /dev/md1 /dev/md2 + # cat /proc/mdstat + +![Creating Raid 0](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Creating-Raid-0.png) + +*创建 RAID 0* + +#### 第3步：保存 RAID 配置 #### + +6、 我们需要将配置文件保存在`/etc/mdadm.conf`文件中，使其每次重新启动后都能加载所有的 RAID 设备。 + + # mdadm --detail --scan --verbose >> /etc/mdadm.conf + +在此之后，我们需要按照方法1中的第3步来创建文件系统。 + +就是这样！我们采用的方法2创建完了 RAID 1+0。我们将会失去一半的磁盘空间，但相比其他 RAID ，它的性能将是非常好的。 + +### 结论 ### + +在这里，我们采用两种方法创建 RAID 10。RAID 10 具有良好的性能和冗余性。希望这篇文章可以帮助你了解 RAID 10 嵌套 RAID。在后面的文章中我们会看到如何扩展现有的 RAID 阵列以及更多精彩的内容。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid-10-in-linux/ + +作者：[Babin Lonston][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/babinlonston/ diff --git a/published/201508/Part 7 - Growing an Existing RAID Array and Removing Failed Disks in Raid.md b/published/201508/Part 7 - Growing an Existing RAID Array and Removing Failed Disks in Raid.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3376376a2a --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/Part 7 - Growing an Existing RAID Array and Removing Failed Disks in Raid.md @@ -0,0 +1,182 @@ +在 Linux 下使用 RAID（七）：在 Raid 中扩展现有的 RAID 阵列和删除故障的磁盘 +================================================================================ + +每个新手都会对阵列（array）这个词所代表的意思产生疑惑。阵列只是磁盘的一个集合。换句话说，我们可以称阵列为一个集合（set）或一组（group）。就像一组鸡蛋中包含6个一样。同样 RAID 阵列中包含着多个磁盘，可能是2，4，6，8，12，16等，希望你现在知道了什么是阵列。 + +在这里，我们将看到如何扩展现有的阵列或 RAID 组。例如，如果我们在阵列中使用2个磁盘形成一个 raid 1 集合，在某些情况，如果该组中需要更多的空间，就可以使用 mdadm -grow 命令来扩展阵列大小，只需要将一个磁盘加入到现有的阵列中即可。在说完扩展（添加磁盘到现有的阵列中）后，我们将看看如何从阵列中删除故障的磁盘。 + +![Grow Raid Array in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Growing-Raid-Array.jpg) + +*扩展 RAID 阵列和删除故障的磁盘* + +假设磁盘中的一个有问题了需要删除该磁盘，但我们需要在删除磁盘前添加一个备用磁盘来扩展该镜像，因为我们需要保存我们的数据。当磁盘发生故障时我们需要从阵列中删除它，这是这个主题中我们将要学习到的。 + +#### 扩展 RAID 的特性 #### + +- 我们可以增加（扩展）任意 RAID 集合的大小。 +- 我们可以在使用新磁盘扩展 RAID 阵列后删除故障的磁盘。 +- 我们可以扩展 RAID 阵列而无需停机。 + +####要求 #### + +- 为了扩展一个RAID阵列，我们需要一个已有的 RAID 组（阵列）。 +- 我们需要额外的磁盘来扩展阵列。 +- 在这里，我们使用一块磁盘来扩展现有的阵列。 + +在我们了解扩展和恢复阵列前，我们必须了解有关 RAID 级别和设置的基本知识。点击下面的链接了解这些。 + +- [介绍 RAID 的级别和概念][1] +- [使用 mdadm 工具创建软件 RAID 0 （条带化）][2] + +#### 我的服务器设置 #### + + 操作系统 : CentOS 6.5 Final +  IP地址 : 192.168.0.230 +  主机名 : grow.tecmintlocal.com + 2 块现有磁盘 : 1 GB + 1 块额外磁盘 : 1 GB + +在这里，我们已有一个 RAID ，有2块磁盘，每个大小为1GB，我们现在再增加一个磁盘到我们现有的 RAID 阵列中，其大小为1GB。 + +### 扩展现有的 RAID 阵列 ### + +1、 在扩展阵列前，首先使用下面的命令列出现有的 RAID 阵列。 + + # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 + +![Check Existing Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Existing-Raid-Array.png) + +*检查现有的 RAID 阵列* + +**注意**: 以上输出显示，已经有了两个磁盘在 RAID 阵列中，级别为 RAID 1。现在我们增加一个磁盘到现有的阵列里。 + +2、 现在让我们添加新的磁盘“sdd”，并使用`fdisk`命令来创建分区。 + + # fdisk /dev/sdd + +请使用以下步骤为 /dev/sdd 创建一个新的分区。 + +- 按 `n` 创建新的分区。 +- 然后按 `P` 选择主分区。 +- 接下来选择分区号为1。 +- 只需按两次回车键选择默认值即可。 +- 然后，按 `P` 来打印创建好的分区。 +- 按 `L`，列出所有可用的类型。 +- 按 `t` 去修改分区。 +- 键入 `fd` 设置为 Linux 的 RAID 类型，然后按回车确认。 +- 然后再次使用`p`查看我们所做的更改。 +- 使用`w`保存更改。 + +![Create New Partition in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-New-sdd-Partition.png) + +*为 sdd 创建新的分区* + +3、 一旦新的 sdd 分区创建完成后，你可以使用下面的命令验证它。 + + # ls -l /dev/ | grep sd + +![Confirm sdd Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Confirm-sdd-Partition.png) + +*确认 sdd 分区* + +4、 接下来，在添加到阵列前先检查磁盘是否有 RAID 分区。 + + # mdadm --examine /dev/sdd1 + +![Check Raid on sdd Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-on-sdd-Partition.png) + +*在 sdd 分区中检查 RAID* + +**注意**:以上输出显示，该盘有没有发现 super-blocks，意味着我们可以将新的磁盘添加到现有阵列。 + +5、 要添加新的分区 /dev/sdd1 到现有的阵列 md0，请使用以下命令。 + + # mdadm --manage /dev/md0 --add /dev/sdd1 + +![Add Disk To Raid-Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Add-Disk-To-Raid-Array.png) + +*添加磁盘到 RAID 阵列* + +6、 一旦新的磁盘被添加后，在我们的阵列中检查新添加的磁盘。 + + # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 + +![Confirm Disk Added to Raid](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Confirm-Disk-Added-To-Raid.png) + +*确认将新磁盘添加到 RAID 中* + +**注意**: 在上面的输出，你可以看到磁盘已经被添加作为备用的。在这里，我们的阵列中已经有了2个磁盘，但我们期待阵列中有3个磁盘，因此我们需要扩展阵列。 + +7、 要扩展阵列，我们需要使用下面的命令。 + + # mdadm --grow --raid-devices=3 /dev/md0 + +![Grow Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Grow-Raid-Array.png) + +*扩展 Raid 阵列* + +现在我们可以看到第三块磁盘(sdd1)已被添加到阵列中，在第三块磁盘被添加后，它将从另外两块磁盘上同步数据。 + + # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 + +![Confirm Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Confirm-Raid-Array.png) + +*确认 Raid 阵列* + +**注意**: 对于大容量磁盘会需要几个小时来同步数据。在这里，我们使用的是1GB的虚拟磁盘，所以它非常快在几秒钟内便会完成。 + +### 从阵列中删除磁盘 ### + +8、 在数据被从其他两个磁盘同步到新磁盘`sdd1`后，现在三个磁盘中的数据已经相同了（镜像）。 + +正如我前面所说的，假定一个磁盘出问题了需要被删除。所以，现在假设磁盘`sdc1`出问题了，需要从现有阵列中删除。 + +在删除磁盘前我们要将其标记为失效，然后我们才可以将其删除。 + + # mdadm --fail /dev/md0 /dev/sdc1 + # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 + +![Disk Fail in Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Disk-Fail-in-Raid-Array.png) + +*在 RAID 阵列中模拟磁盘故障* + +从上面的输出中，我们清楚地看到，磁盘在下面被标记为 faulty。即使它是 faulty 的，我们仍然可以看到 raid 设备有3个，1个损坏了，状态是 degraded。 + +现在我们要从阵列中删除 faulty 的磁盘，raid 设备将像之前一样继续有2个设备。 + + # mdadm --remove /dev/md0 /dev/sdc1 + +![Remove Disk in Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Remove-Disk-in-Raid-Array.png) + +*在 Raid 阵列中删除磁盘* + +9、 一旦故障的磁盘被删除，然后我们只能使用2个磁盘来扩展 raid 阵列了。 + + # mdadm --grow --raid-devices=2 /dev/md0 + # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 + +![Grow Disks in Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Grow-Disks-in-Raid-Array.png) + +*在 RAID 阵列扩展磁盘* + +从上面的输出中可以看到，我们的阵列中仅有2台设备。如果你需要再次扩展阵列，按照如上所述的同样步骤进行。如果你需要添加一个磁盘作为备用，将其标记为 spare，因此，如果磁盘出现故障时，它会自动顶上去并重建数据。 + +### 结论 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们已经看到了如何扩展现有的 RAID 集合，以及如何在重新同步已有磁盘的数据后从一个阵列中删除故障磁盘。所有这些步骤都可以不用停机来完成。在数据同步期间，系统用户，文件和应用程序不会受到任何影响。 + +在接下来的文章我将告诉你如何管理 RAID，敬请关注更新，不要忘了写评论。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/grow-raid-array-in-linux/ + +作者：[Babin Lonston][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/babinlonston/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-6085-1.html +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6087-1.html diff --git a/published/201508/kde-plasma-5.4.md b/published/201508/kde-plasma-5.4.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6d5b77bfd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201508/kde-plasma-5.4.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +KDE Plasma 5.4.0 发布，八月特色版 +============================= + +![Plasma 5.4](https://www.kde.org/announcements/plasma-5.4/plasma-screen-desktop-2-shadow.png) + +2015 年 8 月 25 ，星期二，KDE 发布了 Plasma 5 的一个特色新版本。 + +此版本为我们带来了许多非常棒的感受，如优化了对高分辨率的支持，KRunner 自动补全和一些新的 Breeze 漂亮图标。这还为不久以后的技术预览版的 Wayland 桌面奠定了基础。我们还带来了几个新组件，如声音音量部件，显示器校准工具和测试版的用户管理工具。 + +###新的音频音量程序 + +![The new Audio Volume Applet](https://www.kde.org/announcements/plasma-5.4/plasma-screen-audiovolume-shadows.png) + +新的音频音量程序直接工作于 PulseAudio (Linux 上一个非常流行的音频服务) 之上 ，并且在一个漂亮的简约的界面提供一个完整的音量控制和输出设定。 + +###替代的应用控制面板起动器 + +![he new Dashboard alternative launcher](https://www.kde.org/announcements/plasma-5.4/plasma-screen-dashboard-2-shadow.png) + +Plasma 5.4 在 kdeplasma-addons 软件包中提供了一个全新的全屏的应用控制面板，它具有应用菜单的所有功能，还支持缩放和全空间键盘导航。新的起动器可以像你目前所用的“最近使用的”或“收藏的文档和联系人”一样简单和快速地查找应用。 + +###丰富的艺术图标 + +![Just some of the new icons in this release](https://kver.files.wordpress.com/2015/07/image10430.png) + +Plasma 5.4 提供了超过 1400 个的新图标，其中不仅包含 KDE 程序的，而且还为 Inkscape， Firefox 和 Libreoffice 提供 Breeze 主题的艺术图标，可以体验到更加一致和本地化的感觉。 + +###KRunner 历史记录 + +![KRunner](https://www.kde.org/announcements/plasma-5.4/plasma-screen-krunner-shadow.png) + +KRunner 现在可以记住之前的搜索历史并根据历史记录进行自动补全。 + +###Network 程序中实用的图形展示 + +![Network Graphs](https://www.kde.org/announcements/plasma-5.4/plasma-screen-nm-graph-shadow.png) + +Network 程序现在可以以图形形式显示网络流量了，同时也支持两个新的 VPN 插件：通过 SSH 连接或通过 SSTP 连接。 + +###Wayland 技术预览 + +随着 Plasma 5.4 ，Wayland 桌面发布了第一个技术预览版。在使用自由图形驱动（free graphics drivers）的系统上可以使用 KWin（Plasma 的 Wayland 合成器和 X11 窗口管理器）通过[内核模式设定][1]来运行 Plasma。现在已经支持的功能需求来自于[手机 Plasma 项目][2]，更多的面向桌面的功能还未被完全实现。现在还不能作为替换那些基于 Xorg 的桌面，但可以轻松地对它测试和贡献，以及观看令人激动视频。有关如何在 Wayland 中使用 Plasma 的介绍请到：[KWin 维基页][3]。Wlayland 将随着我们构建的稳定版本而逐步得到改进。 + +###其他的改变和添加 + + - 优化对高 DPI 支持 + - 更少的内存占用 + - 桌面搜索使用了更快的新后端 + - 便笺增加拖拉支持和键盘导航 + - 回收站重新支持拖拉 + - 系统托盘获得更快的可配置性 + - 文档重新修订和更新 + - 优化了窄小面板上的数字时钟的布局 + - 数字时钟支持 ISO 日期 + - 切换数字时钟 12/24 格式更简单 + - 日历显示第几周 + - 任何项目都可以收藏进应用菜单（Kicker），支持收藏文档和 Telepathy 联系人 + - Telepathy 联系人收藏可以展示联系人的照片和实时状态 + - 优化程序与容器间的焦点和激活处理 + - 文件夹视图中各种小修复：更好的默认尺寸，鼠标交互问题以及文本标签换行 + - 任务管理器更好的呈现起动器默认的应用图标 + - 可再次通过将程序拖入任务管理器来添加启动器 + - 可配置中间键点击在任务管理器中的行为：无动作，关闭窗口，启动一个相同的程序的新实例 + - 任务管理器现在以列排序优先，无论用户是否更倾向于行优先;许多用户更喜欢这样排序是因为它会使更少的任务按钮像窗口一样移来移去 + - 优化任务管理器的图标和缩放边 + - 任务管理器中各种小修复：垂直下拉，触摸事件处理现在支持所有系统，组扩展箭头的视觉问题 + - 提供可用的目的框架技术预览版，可以使用 QuickShare Plasmoid，它可以让许多 web 服务分享文件更容易 + - 增加了显示器配置工具 + - 增加的 kwallet-pam 可以在登录时打开 wallet + - 用户管理器现在会同步联系人到 KConfig 的设置中，用户账户模块被丢弃了 + - 应用程序菜单（Kicker）的性能得到改善 + - 应用程序菜单（Kicker）各种小修复：隐藏/显示程序更加可靠，顶部面板的对齐修复，文件夹视图中 “添加到桌面”更加可靠，在基于 KActivities 的最新模块中有更好的表现 + - 支持自定义菜单布局 （kmenuedit）和应用程序菜单（Kicker）支持菜单项目分隔 + - 当在面板中时，改进了文件夹视图，参见 [blog][4] + - 将文件夹拖放到桌面容器现在会再次创建一个文件夹视图 + +[完整的 Plasma 5.4 变更日志在此](https://www.kde.org/announcements/plasma-5.3.2-5.4.0-changelog.php) + +###Live 镜像 + +尝鲜的最简单的方式就是从 U 盘中启动，可以在 KDE 社区 Wiki 中找到 各种 [带有 Plasma 5 的 Live 镜像][5]。 + +###下载软件包 + +各发行版已经构建了软件包，或者正在构建，wiki 中的列出了各发行版的软件包名：[软件包下载维基页][6]。 + +###源码下载 + +可以直接从源码中安装 Plasma 5。KDE 社区 Wiki 已经介绍了[怎样编译][7]。 + +注意，Plasma 5 与 Plasma 4 不兼容，必须先卸载旧版本，或者安装到不同的前缀处。 + + +- [源代码信息页][8] + +--- + +via: https://www.kde.org/announcements/plasma-5.4.0.php + +译者：[Locez](http://locez.com) 校对：[wxy](http://github.com/wxy) + +[1]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager +[2]:https://dot.kde.org/2015/07/25/plasma-mobile-free-mobile-platform +[3]:https://community.kde.org/KWin/Wayland#Start_a_Plasma_session_on_Wayland +[4]:https://blogs.kde.org/2015/06/04/folder-view-panel-popups-are-list-views-again +[5]:https://community.kde.org/Plasma/LiveImages +[6]:https://community.kde.org/Plasma/Packages +[7]:http://community.kde.org/Frameworks/Building +[8]:https://www.kde.org/info/plasma-5.4.0.php \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/201509/20141223 Defending the Free Linux World.md b/published/201509/20141223 Defending the Free Linux World.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b554bf7f7e --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20141223 Defending the Free Linux World.md @@ -0,0 +1,125 @@ +守卫自由的 Linux 世界 +================================================================================ +![](http://www.linuxinsider.com/ai/908455/open-invention-network.jpg) + +**合作是开源的一部分。OIN 的 CEO Keith Bergelt 解释说，开放创新网络（Open Invention Network）模式允许众多企业和公司决定它们该在哪较量，在哪合作。随着开源的演变，“我们需要为合作创造渠道，否则我们将会有几百个团体把数十亿美元花费到同样的技术上。”** + +[开放创新网络（Open Invention Network）][1]，即 OIN，正在全球范围内开展让 Linux 远离专利诉讼的伤害的活动。它的努力得到了一千多个公司的热烈回应，它们的加入让这股力量成为了历史上最大的反专利管理组织。 + +开放创新网络以白帽子组织的身份创建于2005年，目的是保护 Linux 免受来自许可证方面的困扰。包括 Google、 IBM、 NEC、 Novell、 Philips、 [Red Hat][2] 和 Sony 这些成员的董事会给予了它可观的经济支持。世界范围内的多个组织通过签署自由 OIN 协议加入了这个社区。 + +创立开放创新网络的组织成员把它当作利用知识产权保护 Linux 的大胆尝试。它的商业模式非常的难以理解。它要求它的成员采用免版权许可证，并永远放弃由于 Linux 相关知识产权起诉其他成员的机会。 + +然而，从 Linux 收购风波——想想服务器和云平台——那时起，保护 Linux 知识产权的策略就变得越加的迫切。 + +在过去的几年里，Linux 的版图曾经历了一场变革。OIN 不必再向人们解释这个组织的定义，也不必再解释为什么 Linux 需要保护。据 OIN 的 CEO Keith Bergelt 说，现在 Linux 的重要性得到了全世界的关注。 + +“我们已经见到了一场人们了解到 OIN 如何让合作受益的文化变革，”他对 LinuxInsider 说。 + +### 如何运作 ### + +开放创新网络使用专利权的方式创建了一个协作环境。这种方法有助于确保创新的延续。这已经使很多软件厂商、顾客、新型市场和投资者受益。 + +开放创新网络的专利证可以让任何公司、公共机构或个人免版权使用。这些权利的获得建立在签署者同意不会专为了维护专利而攻击 Linux 系统的基础上。 + +OIN 确保 Linux 的源代码保持开放的状态。这让编程人员、设备厂商、独立软件开发者和公共机构在投资和使用 Linux 时不用过多的担心知识产权的问题。这让对 Linux 进行重新打包、嵌入和使用的公司省了不少钱。 + +“随着版权许可证越来越广泛的使用，对 OIN 许可证的需求也变得更加的迫切。现在，人们正在寻找更加简单或更实用的解决方法”，Bergelt 说。 + +OIN 法律防御援助对成员是免费的。成员必须承诺不对 OIN 名单上的软件发起专利诉讼。为了保护他们的软件，他们也同意提供他们自己的专利。最终，这些保证将让几十万的交叉许可通过该网络相互连接起来，Bergelt 如此解释道。 + +### 填补法律漏洞 ### + +“OIN 正在做的事情是非常必要的。它提供另一层 IP （知识产权）保护，”[休斯顿法律中心大学][3]的副教授 Greg R. Vetter 这样说道。 + +他回答 LinuxInsider 说，第二版 GPL 许可证被某些人认为提供了隐含的专利许可，但是律师们更喜欢明确的许可。 + +OIN 所提供的许可填补了这个空白。它还明确的覆盖了 Linux 内核。据 Vetter 说，明确的专利许可并不是 GPLv2 中的必要部分，但是这个部分被加入到了 GPLv3 中。（LCTT 译注：Linux 内核采用的是 GPLv2 的许可） + +拿一个在 GPLv3 中写了10000行代码的代码编写者来说。随着时间推移，其他的代码编写者会贡献更多行的代码，也加入到了知识产权中。GPLv3 中的软件专利许可条款将基于所有参与的贡献者的专利，保护全部代码的使用，Vetter 如此说道。 + +### 并不完全一样 ### + +专利权和许可证在法律结构上层层叠叠互相覆盖。弄清两者对开源软件的作用就像是穿越雷区。 + +Vetter 说“通常，许可证是授予建立在专利和版权法律上的额外权利的法律结构。许可证被认为是给予了人们做一些的可能会侵犯到其他人的知识产权权利的事的许可。” + +Vetter 指出，很多自由开源许可证（例如 Mozilla 公共许可、GNU GPLv3 以及 Apache 软件许可）融合了某些互惠专利权的形式。Vetter 指出，像 BSD 和 MIT 这样旧的许可证不会提到专利。 + +一个软件的许可证让其他人可以在某种程度上使用这个编程人员创造的代码。版权对所属权的建立是自动的，只要某个人写或者画了某个原创的东西。然而，版权只覆盖了个别的表达方式和衍生的作品。他并没有涵盖代码的功能性或可用的想法。 + +专利涵盖了功能性。专利权还可以被许可。版权可能无法保护某人如何独立地开发对另一个人的代码的实现，但是专利填补了这个小瑕疵，Vetter 解释道。 + +### 寻找安全通道 ### + +许可证和专利混合的法律性质可能会对开源开发者产生威胁。据 [Chaotic Moon Studios][4] 的创办者之一、 [IEEE][5] 计算机协会成员 William Hurley 说，对于某些人来说，即使是 GPL 也会成为威胁。 + +“在很久以前，开源是个完全不同的世界。被彼此间的尊重和把代码视为艺术而非资产的观点所驱动，那时的程序和代码比现在更加的开放。我相信很多为最好的愿景所做的努力几乎最后总是背负着意外的结果，”Hurley 这样告诉 LinuxInsider。 + +他暗示说，成员人数超越了1000人（的组织）可能会在知识产权保护重要性方面意见不一。这可能会继续搅混开源生态系统这滩浑水。 + +“最终，这些显现出了围绕着知识产权的常见的一些错误概念。拥有几千个开发者并不会减少风险——而是增加。给出了专利许可的开发者越多，它们看起来就越值钱，”Hurley 说。“它们看起来越值钱，有着类似专利的或者其他知识产权的人就越可能试图利用并从中榨取他们自己的经济利益。” + +### 共享与竞争共存 ### + +竞合策略是开源的一部分。OIN 模型让各个公司能够决定他们将在哪竞争以及在哪合作，Bergelt 解释道。 + +“开源演化中的许多改变已经把我们移到了另一个方向上。我们必须为合作创造渠道。否则我们将会有几百个团体把数十亿美元花费到同样的技术上，”他说。 + +手机产业的革新就是个很好的例子。各个公司放出了不同的标准。没有共享，没有合作，Bergelt 解释道。 + +他说：“这让我们在美国接触技术的能力落后了七到十年。我们接触设备的经验远远落后于世界其他地方的人。在我们用不上 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access 码分多址访问通信技术)时对 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications 全球移动通信系统) 还沾沾自喜。” + +### 改变格局 ### + +OIN 在去年经历了激增400个新许可的增长。这意味着着开源有了新趋势。 + +Bergelt 说：“市场到达了一个临界点，组织内的人们终于意识到直白地合作和竞争的需要。结果是两件事同时进行。这可能会变得复杂、费力。” + +然而，这个由人们开始考虑合作和竞争的文化革新所驱动的转换过程是可以接受的。他解释说，这也是一个人们怎样拥抱开源的转变——尤其是在 Linux 这个开源社区的领导者项目。 + +还有一个迹象是，最具意义的新项目都没有在 GPLv3 许可下开发。 + +### 二个总比一个好 ### + +“GPL 极为重要，但是事实是有一堆的许可模型正被使用着。在 Eclipse、Apache 和 Berkeley 许可中，专利问题的相对可解决性通常远远低于在 GPLv3 中的。”Bergelt 说。 + +GPLv3 对于解决专利问题是个自然的补充——但是 GPL 自身不足以独自解决围绕专利使用的潜在冲突。所以 OIN 的设计是以能够补充版权许可为目的的，他补充道。 + +然而，层层叠叠的专利和许可也许并没有带来多少好处。到最后，专利在几乎所有的案例中都被用于攻击目的——而不是防御目的，Bergelt 暗示说。 + +“如果你不准备对其他人采取法律行动，那么对于你的知识产权来说专利可能并不是最佳的法律保护方式”，他说。“我们现在生活在一个对软件——开放的和专有的——误会重重的世界里。这些软件还被错误而过时的专利系统所捆绑。我们每天在工业化和被扼杀的创新中挣扎”，他说。 + +### 法院是最后的手段### + +想到 OIN 的出现抑制了诉讼的泛滥就感到十分欣慰，Bergelt 说，或者至少可以说 OIN 的出现扼制了特定的某些威胁。 + +“可以说我们让人们放下他们的武器。同时我们正在创建一种新的文化规范。一旦你入股这个模型中的非侵略专利，所产生的相关影响就是对合作的鼓励”，他说。 + +如果你愿意承诺合作，你的第一反应就会趋向于不急着起诉。相反的，你会想如何让我们允许你使用我们所拥有的东西并让它为你赚钱，而同时我们也能使用你所拥有的东西，Bergelt 解释道。 + +“OIN 是个多面的解决方式。它鼓励签署者创造双赢协议”，他说，“这让起诉成为最逼不得已的行为。那才是它的位置。” + +### 底线### + +Bergelt 坚信，OIN 的运作是为了阻止 Linux 受到专利伤害。在这个需要 Linux 的世界里没有诉讼的地方。 + +唯一临近的是与微软的移动之争，这关系到行业的发展前景（原文： The only thing that comes close are the mobile wars with Microsoft, which focus on elements high in the stack. 不太理解，请指正。）。那些来自法律的挑战可能是为了提高包括使用 Linux 产品的所属权的成本，Bergelt 说。 + +尽管如此“这些并不是有关 Linux 诉讼”，他说。“他们的重点并不在于 Linux 的核心。他们关注的是 Linux 系统里都有些什么。” + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.linuxinsider.com/story/Defending-the-Free-Linux-World-81512.html + +作者：Jack M. Germain +译者：[H-mudcup](https://github.com/H-mudcup) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://www.openinventionnetwork.com/ +[2]:http://www.redhat.com/ +[3]:http://www.law.uh.edu/ +[4]:http://www.chaoticmoon.com/ +[5]:http://www.ieee.org/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150225 How to set up IPv6 BGP peering and filtering in Quagga BGP router.md b/published/201509/20150225 How to set up IPv6 BGP peering and filtering in Quagga BGP router.md similarity index 97% rename from translated/tech/20150225 How to set up IPv6 BGP peering and filtering in Quagga BGP router.md rename to published/201509/20150225 How to set up IPv6 BGP peering and filtering in Quagga BGP router.md index 23e2314576..1e17c7c6d3 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150225 How to set up IPv6 BGP peering and filtering in Quagga BGP router.md +++ b/published/201509/20150225 How to set up IPv6 BGP peering and filtering in Quagga BGP router.md @@ -1,5 +1,6 @@ -如何设置在Quagga BGP路由器中设置IPv6的BGP对等体和过滤 +如何设置在 Quagga BGP 路由器中设置 IPv6 的 BGP 对等体和过滤 ================================================================================ + 在之前的教程中，我们演示了如何使用Quagga建立一个[完备的BGP路由器][1]和配置[前缀过滤][2]。在本教程中，我们会向你演示如何创建IPv6 BGP对等体并通过BGP通告IPv6前缀。同时我们也将演示如何使用前缀列表和路由映射特性来过滤通告的或者获取到的IPv6前缀。 ### 拓扑 ### @@ -47,7 +48,7 @@ Quagga内部提供一个叫作vtysh的shell，其界面与那些主流路由厂 # vtysh -提示将改为： +提示符将改为： router-a# @@ -65,7 +66,7 @@ Quagga内部提供一个叫作vtysh的shell，其界面与那些主流路由厂 router-a# configure terminal -提示将变更成： +提示符将变更成： router-a(config)# @@ -246,13 +247,13 @@ Quagga内部提供一个叫作vtysh的shell，其界面与那些主流路由厂 via: http://xmodulo.com/ipv6-bgp-peering-filtering-quagga-bgp-router.html 作者：[Sarmed Rahman][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +译者：[martin2011qi](https://github.com/martin2011qi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 [a]:http://xmodulo.com/author/sarmed -[1]:http://xmodulo.com/centos-bgp-router-quagga.html +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-4232-1.html [2]:http://xmodulo.com/filter-bgp-routes-quagga-bgp-router.html [3]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/open-port-firewall-centos-rhel.html [4]:http://xmodulo.com/filter-bgp-routes-quagga-bgp-router.html diff --git a/published/201509/20150623 Shilpa Nair Shares Her Interview Experience on RedHat Linux Package Management.md b/published/201509/20150623 Shilpa Nair Shares Her Interview Experience on RedHat Linux Package Management.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0ca331b72b --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150623 Shilpa Nair Shares Her Interview Experience on RedHat Linux Package Management.md @@ -0,0 +1,348 @@ +Shilpa Nair 分享的 RedHat Linux 包管理方面的面试经验 +======================================================================== +**Shilpa Nair 刚于2015年毕业。她之后去了一家位于 Noida，Delhi 的国家新闻电视台，应聘实习生的岗位。在她去年毕业季的时候，常逛 Tecmint 寻求作业上的帮助。从那时开始，她就常去 Tecmint。** + +![Linux Interview Questions on RPM](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-Interview-Questions-on-RPM.jpeg) + +*有关 RPM 方面的 Linux 面试题* + +所有的问题和回答都是 Shilpa Nair 根据回忆重写的。 + +> “大家好！我是来自 Delhi 的Shilpa Nair。我不久前才顺利毕业，正寻找一个实习的机会。在大学早期的时候，我就对 UNIX 十分喜爱，所以我也希望这个机会能适合我，满足我的兴趣。我被提问了很多问题，大部分都是关于 RedHat 包管理的基础问题。” + +下面就是我被问到的问题，和对应的回答。我仅贴出了与 RedHat GNU/Linux 包管理相关的，也是主要被提问的。 + +### 1，Linux 里如何查找一个包安装与否？假设你需要确认 ‘nano’ 有没有安装，你怎么做？ ### + +**回答**：为了确认 nano 软件包有没有安装，我们可以使用 rpm 命令，配合 -q 和 -a 选项来查询所有已安装的包 + + # rpm -qa nano + 或 + # rpm -qa | grep -i nano + + nano-2.3.1-10.el7.x86_64 + +同时包的名字必须是完整的，不完整的包名会返回到提示符，不打印任何东西，就是说这包（包名字不全）未安装。下面的例子会更好理解些： + +我们通常使用 vim 替代 vi 命令。当时如果我们查找安装包 vi/vim 的时候，我们就会看到标准输出上没有任何结果。 + + # vi + # vim + +尽管如此，我们仍然可以像上面一样运行 vi/vim 命令来清楚地知道包有没有安装。只是因为我们不知道它的完整包名才不能找到的。如果我们不确切知道完整的文件名，我们可以使用通配符： + + # rpm -qa vim* + + vim-minimal-7.4.160-1.el7.x86_64 + +通过这种方式，我们可以获得任何软件包的信息，安装与否。 + +### 2. 你如何使用 rpm 命令安装 XYZ 软件包？ ### + +**回答**：我们可以使用 rpm 命令安装任何的软件包（*.rpm），像下面这样，选项 -i（安装），-v（冗余或者显示额外的信息）和 -h（在安装过程中，打印#号显示进度）。 + + # rpm -ivh peazip-1.11-1.el6.rf.x86_64.rpm + + Preparing... ################################# [100%] + Updating / installing... + 1:peazip-1.11-1.el6.rf ################################# [100%] + +如果要升级一个早期版本的包，应加上 -U 选项，选项 -v 和 -h 可以确保我们得到用 # 号表示的冗余输出，这增加了可读性。 + +### 3. 你已经安装了一个软件包（假设是 httpd），现在你想看看软件包创建并安装的所有文件和目录，你会怎么做？ ### + +**回答**：使用选项 -l（列出所有文件）和 -q（查询）列出 httpd 软件包安装的所有文件（Linux 哲学：所有的都是文件，包括目录）。 + + # rpm -ql httpd + + /etc/httpd + /etc/httpd/conf + /etc/httpd/conf.d + ... + +### 4. 假如你要移除一个软件包，叫 postfix。你会怎么做？ ### + +**回答**：首先我们需要知道什么包安装了 postfix。查找安装 postfix 的包名后，使用 -e（擦除/卸载软件包）和 -v（冗余输出）两个选项来实现。 + + # rpm -qa postfix* + + postfix-2.10.1-6.el7.x86_64 + +然后移除 postfix，如下: + + # rpm -ev postfix-2.10.1-6.el7.x86_64 + + Preparing packages... + postfix-2:3.0.1-2.fc22.x86_64 + +### 5. 获得一个已安装包的具体信息，如版本，发行号，安装日期，大小，总结和一个简短的描述。 ### + +**回答**：我们通过使用 rpm 的选项 -qi，后面接包名，可以获得关于一个已安装包的具体信息。 + +举个例子，为了获得 openssh 包的具体信息，我需要做的就是： + + # rpm -qi openssh + + [root@tecmint tecmint]# rpm -qi openssh + Name : openssh + Version : 6.8p1 + Release : 5.fc22 + Architecture: x86_64 + Install Date: Thursday 28 May 2015 12:34:50 PM IST + Group : Applications/Internet + Size : 1542057 + License : BSD + .... + +### 6. 假如你不确定一个指定包的配置文件在哪，比如 httpd。你如何找到所有 httpd 提供的配置文件列表和位置。 ### + +**回答**： 我们需要用选项 -c 接包名，这会列出所有配置文件的名字和他们的位置。 + + # rpm -qc httpd + + /etc/httpd/conf.d/autoindex.conf + /etc/httpd/conf.d/userdir.conf + /etc/httpd/conf.d/welcome.conf + /etc/httpd/conf.modules.d/00-base.conf + /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf + /etc/sysconfig/httpd + +相似地，我们可以列出所有相关的文档文件，如下： + + # rpm -qd httpd + + /usr/share/doc/httpd/ABOUT_APACHE + /usr/share/doc/httpd/CHANGES + /usr/share/doc/httpd/LICENSE + ... + +我们也可以列出所有相关的证书文件，如下： + + # rpm -qL openssh + + /usr/share/licenses/openssh/LICENCE + +忘了说明上面的选项 -d 和 -L 分别表示 “文档” 和 “证书”，抱歉。 + +### 7. 你找到了一个配置文件，位于‘/usr/share/alsa/cards/AACI.conf’，现在你不确定该文件属于哪个包。你如何查找出包的名字？ ### + +**回答**：当一个包被安装后，相关的信息就存储在了数据库里。所以使用选项 -qf（-f 查询包拥有的文件）很容易追踪谁提供了上述的包。 + + # rpm -qf /usr/share/alsa/cards/AACI.conf + alsa-lib-1.0.28-2.el7.x86_64 + +类似地，我们可以查找（谁提供的）关于任何子包，文档和证书文件的信息。 + +### 8. 你如何使用 rpm 查找最近安装的软件列表？ ### + +**回答**：如刚刚说的，每一样被安装的文件都记录在了数据库里。所以这并不难，通过查询 rpm 的数据库，找到最近安装软件的列表。 + +我们通过运行下面的命令，使用选项 -last（打印出最近安装的软件）达到目的。 + + # rpm -qa --last + +上面的命令会打印出所有安装的软件，最近安装的软件在列表的顶部。 + +如果我们关心的是找出特定的包，我们可以使用 grep 命令从列表中匹配包（假设是 sqlite ），简单如下： + + # rpm -qa --last | grep -i sqlite + + sqlite-3.8.10.2-1.fc22.x86_64 Thursday 18 June 2015 05:05:43 PM IST + +我们也可以获得10个最近安装的软件列表，简单如下： + + # rpm -qa --last | head + +我们可以重定义一下，输出想要的结果，简单如下： + + # rpm -qa --last | head -n 2 + +上面的命令中，-n 代表数目，后面接一个常数值。该命令是打印2个最近安装的软件的列表。 + +### 9. 安装一个包之前，你如果要检查其依赖。你会怎么做？ ### + +**回答**：检查一个 rpm 包（XYZ.rpm）的依赖，我们可以使用选项 -q（查询包），-p（指定包名）和 -R（查询/列出该包依赖的包，嗯，就是依赖）。 + + # rpm -qpR gedit-3.16.1-1.fc22.i686.rpm + + /bin/sh + /usr/bin/env + glib2(x86-32) >= 2.40.0 + gsettings-desktop-schemas + gtk3(x86-32) >= 3.16 + gtksourceview3(x86-32) >= 3.16 + gvfs + libX11.so.6 + ... + +### 10. rpm 是不是一个前端的包管理工具呢？ ### + +**回答**：**不是！**rpm 是一个后端管理工具，适用于基于 Linux 发行版的 RPM （此处指 Redhat Package Management）。 + +[YUM][1]，全称 Yellowdog Updater Modified，是一个 RPM 的前端工具。YUM 命令自动完成所有工作，包括解决依赖和其他一切事务。 + +最近，[DNF][2]（YUM命令升级版）在Fedora 22发行版中取代了 YUM。尽管 YUM 仍然可以在 RHEL 和 CentOS 平台使用，我们也可以安装 dnf，与 YUM 命令共存使用。据说 DNF 较于 YUM 有很多提高。 + +知道更多总是好的，保持自我更新。现在我们移步到前端部分来谈谈。 + +### 11. 你如何列出一个系统上面所有可用的仓库列表。 ### + +**回答**：简单地使用下面的命令，我们就可以列出一个系统上所有可用的仓库列表。 + + # yum repolist + 或 + # dnf repolist + + Last metadata expiration check performed 0:30:03 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. + repo id repo name status + *fedora Fedora 22 - x86_64 44,762 + ozonos Repository for Ozon OS 61 + *updates Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Updates + +上面的命令仅会列出可用的仓库。如果你需要列出所有的仓库，不管可用与否，可以这样做。 + + # yum repolist all + 或 + # dnf repolist all + + Last metadata expiration check performed 0:29:45 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. + repo id repo name status + *fedora Fedora 22 - x86_64 enabled: 44,762 + fedora-debuginfo Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Debug disabled + fedora-source Fedora 22 - Source disabled + ozonos Repository for Ozon OS enabled: 61 + *updates Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Updates enabled: 5,018 + updates-debuginfo Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Updates - Debug + +### 12. 你如何列出一个系统上所有可用并且安装了的包？ ### + +**回答**：列出一个系统上所有可用的包，我们可以这样做： + + # yum list available + 或 + # dnf list available + + ast metadata expiration check performed 0:34:09 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. + Available Packages + 0ad.x86_64 0.0.18-1.fc22 fedora + 0ad-data.noarch 0.0.18-1.fc22 fedora + 0install.x86_64 2.6.1-2.fc21 fedora + 0xFFFF.x86_64 0.3.9-11.fc22 fedora + 2048-cli.x86_64 0.9-4.git20141214.723738c.fc22 fedora + 2048-cli-nocurses.x86_64 0.9-4.git20141214.723738c.fc22 fedora + .... + +而列出一个系统上所有已安装的包，我们可以这样做。 + + # yum list installed + 或 + # dnf list installed + + Last metadata expiration check performed 0:34:30 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. + Installed Packages + GeoIP.x86_64 1.6.5-1.fc22 @System + GeoIP-GeoLite-data.noarch 2015.05-1.fc22 @System + NetworkManager.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System + NetworkManager-libnm.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System + aajohan-comfortaa-fonts.noarch 2.004-4.fc22 @System + .... + +而要同时满足两个要求的时候，我们可以这样做。 + + # yum list + 或 + # dnf list + + Last metadata expiration check performed 0:32:56 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. + Installed Packages + GeoIP.x86_64 1.6.5-1.fc22 @System + GeoIP-GeoLite-data.noarch 2015.05-1.fc22 @System + NetworkManager.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System + NetworkManager-libnm.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System + aajohan-comfortaa-fonts.noarch 2.004-4.fc22 @System + acl.x86_64 2.2.52-7.fc22 @System + .... + +### 13. 你会怎么在一个系统上面使用 YUM 或 DNF 分别安装和升级一个包与一组包？ ### + +**回答**：安装一个包（假设是 nano），我们可以这样做， + + # yum install nano + +而安装一组包（假设是 Haskell），我们可以这样做， + + # yum groupinstall 'haskell' + +升级一个包（还是 nano），我们可以这样做， + + # yum update nano + +而为了升级一组包（还是 haskell），我们可以这样做， + + # yum groupupdate 'haskell' + +### 14. 你会如何同步一个系统上面的所有安装软件到稳定发行版？ ### + +**回答**：我们可以一个系统上（假设是 CentOS 或者 Fedora）的所有包到稳定发行版，如下， + + # yum distro-sync [在 CentOS/ RHEL] + 或 + # dnf distro-sync [在 Fedora 20之后版本] + +似乎来面试之前你做了相当不多的功课，很好！在进一步交谈前，我还想问一两个问题。 + +### 15. 你对 YUM 本地仓库熟悉吗？你尝试过建立一个本地 YUM 仓库吗？让我们简单看看你会怎么建立一个本地 YUM 仓库。 ### + +**回答**：首先，感谢你的夸奖。回到问题，我必须承认我对本地 YUM 仓库十分熟悉，并且在我的本地主机上也部署过，作为测试用。 + +1、 为了建立本地 YUM 仓库，我们需要安装下面三个包： + + # yum install deltarpm python-deltarpm createrepo + +2、 新建一个目录(假设 /home/$USER/rpm)，然后复制 RedHat/CentOS DVD 上的 RPM 包到这个文件夹下 + + # mkdir /home/$USER/rpm + # cp /path/to/rpm/on/DVD/*.rpm /home/$USER/rpm + +3、 新建基本的库头文件如下。 + + # createrepo -v /home/$USER/rpm + +4、 在路径 /etc/yum.repo.d 下创建一个 .repo 文件（如 abc.repo): + + cd /etc/yum.repos.d && cat << EOF abc.repo + [local-installation]name=yum-local + baseurl=file:///home/$USER/rpm + enabled=1 + gpgcheck=0 + EOF + +**重要**：用你的用户名替换掉 $USER。 + +以上就是创建一个本地 YUM 仓库所要做的全部工作。我们现在可以从这里安装软件了，相对快一些，安全一些，并且最重要的是不需要 Internet 连接。 + +好了！面试过程很愉快。我已经问完了。我会将你推荐给 HR。你是一个年轻且十分聪明的候选者，我们很愿意你加入进来。如果你有任何问题，你可以问我。 + +**我**：谢谢，这确实是一次愉快的面试，我感到今天非常幸运，可以搞定这次面试... + +显然，不会在这里结束。我问了很多问题，比如他们正在做的项目。我会担任什么角色，负责什么，，，balabalabala + +小伙伴们，这之后的 3 天会经过 HR 轮，到时候所有问题到时候也会被写成文档。希望我当时表现不错。感谢你们所有的祝福。 + +谢谢伙伴们和 Tecmint，花时间来编辑我的面试经历。我相信 Tecmint 好伙伴们做了很大的努力，必要要赞一个。当我们与他人分享我们的经历的时候，其他人从我们这里知道了更多，而我们自己则发现了自己的不足。 + +这增加了我们的信心。如果你最近也有任何类似的面试经历，别自己蔵着。分享出来！让我们所有人都知道。你可以使用如下的表单来与我们分享你的经历。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/linux-rpm-package-management-interview-questions/ + +作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] +译者：[wi-cuckoo](https://github.com/wi-cuckoo) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-linux-yum-yellowdog-updater-modified-commands-for-package-mangement/ +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-5718-1.html diff --git a/translated/tech/20150722 Howto Interactively Perform Tasks with Docker using Kitematic.md b/published/201509/20150722 Howto Interactively Perform Tasks with Docker using Kitematic.md similarity index 60% rename from translated/tech/20150722 Howto Interactively Perform Tasks with Docker using Kitematic.md rename to published/201509/20150722 Howto Interactively Perform Tasks with Docker using Kitematic.md index 8ad03dd06c..ac93dceb50 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150722 Howto Interactively Perform Tasks with Docker using Kitematic.md +++ b/published/201509/20150722 Howto Interactively Perform Tasks with Docker using Kitematic.md @@ -1,8 +1,9 @@ -如何在 Docker 中通过 Kitematic 交互式执行任务 +如何在 Windows 上通过 Kitematic 使用 Docker ================================================================================ -在本篇文章中，我们会学习如何在 Windows 操作系统上安装 Kitematic 以及部署一个 Hello World Nginx Web 服务器。Kitematic 是一个自由开源软件，它有现代化的界面设计使得允许我们在 Docker 中交互式执行任务。Kitematic 设计非常漂亮、界面也很不错。我们可以简单快速地开箱搭建我们的容器而不需要输入命令，我们可以在图形用户界面中通过简单的点击从而在容器上部署我们的应用。Kitematic 集成了 Docker Hub，允许我们搜索、拉取任何需要的镜像，并在上面部署应用。它同时也能很好地切换到命令行用户接口模式。目前，它包括了自动映射端口、可视化更改环境变量、配置卷、精简日志以及其它功能。 -下面是在 Windows 上安装 Kitematic 并部署 Hello World Nginx Web 服务器的 3 个简单步骤。 +在本篇文章中，我们会学习如何在 Windows 操作系统上安装 Kitematic 以及部署一个测试性的 Nginx Web 服务器。Kitematic 是一个具有现代化的界面设计的自由开源软件，它可以让我们在 Docker 中交互式执行任务。Kitematic 设计的非常漂亮、界面美观。使用它，我们可以简单快速地开箱搭建我们的容器而不需要输入命令，可以在图形用户界面中通过简单的点击从而在容器上部署我们的应用。Kitematic 集成了 Docker Hub，允许我们搜索、拉取任何需要的镜像，并在上面部署应用。它同时也能很好地切换到命令行用户接口模式。目前，它包括了自动映射端口、可视化更改环境变量、配置卷、流式日志以及其它功能。 + +下面是在 Windows 上安装 Kitematic 并部署测试性 Nginx Web 服务器的 3 个简单步骤。 ### 1. 下载 Kitematic ### @@ -16,15 +17,15 @@ ### 2. 安装 Kitematic ### -下载好可执行安装程序之后，我们现在打算在我们的 Windows 操作系统上安装 Kitematic。安装程序现在会开始下载并安装运行 Kitematic 需要的依赖，包括 Virtual Box 和 Docker。如果已经在系统上安装了 Virtual Box，它会把它升级到最新版本。安装程序会在几分钟内完成，但取决于你网络和系统的速度。如果你还没有安装 Virtual Box，它会问你是否安装 Virtual Box 网络驱动。建议安装它，因为它有助于 Virtual Box 的网络。 +下载好可执行安装程序之后，我们现在就可以在我们的 Windows 操作系统上安装 Kitematic了。安装程序现在会开始下载并安装运行 Kitematic 需要的依赖软件，包括 Virtual Box 和 Docker。如果已经在系统上安装了 Virtual Box，它会把它升级到最新版本。安装程序会在几分钟内完成，但取决于你网络和系统的速度。如果你还没有安装 Virtual Box，它会问你是否安装 Virtual Box 网络驱动。建议安装它，因为它用于 Virtual Box 的网络功能。 ![安装 Kitematic](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/installing-kitematic.png) -需要的依赖 Docker 和 Virtual Box 安装完成并运行后，会让我们登录到 Docker Hub。如果我们还没有账户或者还不想登录，可以点击 **SKIP FOR NOW** 继续后面的步骤。 +所需的依赖 Docker 和 Virtual Box 安装完成并运行后，会让我们登录到 Docker Hub。如果我们还没有账户或者还不想登录，可以点击 **SKIP FOR NOW** 继续后面的步骤。 ![登录 Docker Hub](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/login-docker-hub.jpg) -如果你还没有账户，你可以在应用程序上点击注册链接并在 Docker Hub 上创建账户。 +如果你还没有账户，你可以在应用程序上点击注册（Sign Up）链接并在 Docker Hub 上创建账户。 完成之后，就会出现 Kitematic 应用程序的第一个界面。正如下面看到的这样。我们可以搜索可用的 docker 镜像。 @@ -50,7 +51,11 @@ ### 总结 ### -我们终于成功在 Windows 操作系统上安装了 Kitematic 并部署了一个 Hello World Ngnix 服务器。总是推荐下载安装 Kitematic 最新的发行版，因为会增加很多新的高级功能。由于 Docker 运行在 64 位平台，当前 Kitematic 也是为 64 位操作系统构建。它只能在 Windows 7 以及更高版本上运行。在这篇教程中，我们部署了一个 Nginx Web 服务器，类似地我们可以在 Kitematic 中简单的点击就能通过镜像部署任何 docker 容器。Kitematic 已经有可用的 Mac OS X 和 Windows 版本，Linux 版本也在开发中很快就会发布。如果你有任何疑问、建议或者反馈，请在下面的评论框中写下来以便我们更改地改进或更新我们的内容。非常感谢！Enjoy :-) +我们终于成功在 Windows 操作系统上安装了 Kitematic 并部署了一个 Hello World Ngnix 服务器。推荐下载安装 Kitematic 最新的发行版，因为会增加很多新的高级功能。由于 Docker 运行在 64 位平台，当前 Kitematic 也是为 64 位操作系统构建。它只能在 Windows 7 以及更高版本上运行。 + +在这篇教程中，我们部署了一个 Nginx Web 服务器，类似地我们可以在 Kitematic 中简单的点击就能通过镜像部署任何 docker 容器。Kitematic 已经有可用的 Mac OS X 和 Windows 版本，Linux 版本也在开发中很快就会发布。 + +如果你有任何疑问、建议或者反馈，请在下面的评论框中写下来以便我们更改地改进或更新我们的内容。非常感谢！Enjoy :-) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -58,7 +63,7 @@ via: http://linoxide.com/linux-how-to/interactively-docker-kitematic/ 作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] 译者：[ictlyh](https://github.com/ictlyh) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201509/20150728 Process of the Linux kernel building.md b/published/201509/20150728 Process of the Linux kernel building.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..13610c77f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150728 Process of the Linux kernel building.md @@ -0,0 +1,690 @@ +你知道 Linux 内核是如何构建的吗？ +================================================================================ + +###介绍 + +我不会告诉你怎么在自己的电脑上去构建、安装一个定制化的 Linux 内核，这样的[资料](https://encrypted.google.com/search?q=building+linux+kernel#q=building+linux+kernel+from+source+code)太多了，它们会对你有帮助。本文会告诉你当你在内核源码路径里敲下`make` 时会发生什么。 + +当我刚刚开始学习内核代码时，[Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) 是我打开的第一个文件，这个文件看起来真令人害怕 :)。那时候这个 [Makefile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_%28software%29) 还只包含了`1591` 行代码，当我开始写本文时，内核已经是[4.2.0的第三个候选版本](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/commit/52721d9d3334c1cb1f76219a161084094ec634dc) 了。 + +这个 makefile 是 Linux 内核代码的根 makefile ，内核构建就始于此处。是的，它的内容很多，但是如果你已经读过内核源代码，你就会发现每个包含代码的目录都有一个自己的 makefile。当然了，我们不会去描述每个代码文件是怎么编译链接的，所以我们将只会挑选一些通用的例子来说明问题。而你不会在这里找到构建内核的文档、如何整洁内核代码、[tags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctags) 的生成和[交叉编译](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_compiler) 相关的说明，等等。我们将从`make` 开始，使用标准的内核配置文件，到生成了内核镜像 [bzImage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux#bzImage) 结束。 + +如果你已经很了解 [make](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_%28software%29) 工具那是最好，但是我也会描述本文出现的相关代码。 + +让我们开始吧！ + + +###编译内核前的准备 + +在开始编译前要进行很多准备工作。最主要的就是找到并配置好配置文件，`make` 命令要使用到的参数都需要从这些配置文件获取。现在就让我们深入内核的根 `makefile` 吧 + +内核的根 `Makefile` 负责构建两个主要的文件：[vmlinux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux) （内核镜像可执行文件）和模块文件。内核的 [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) 从定义如下变量开始： + +```Makefile +VERSION = 4 +PATCHLEVEL = 2 +SUBLEVEL = 0 +EXTRAVERSION = -rc3 +NAME = Hurr durr I'ma sheep +``` + +这些变量决定了当前内核的版本，并且被使用在很多不同的地方，比如同一个 `Makefile` 中的 `KERNELVERSION` ： + +```Makefile +KERNELVERSION = $(VERSION)$(if $(PATCHLEVEL),.$(PATCHLEVEL)$(if $(SUBLEVEL),.$(SUBLEVEL)))$(EXTRAVERSION) +``` + +接下来我们会看到很多`ifeq` 条件判断语句，它们负责检查传递给 `make` 的参数。内核的 `Makefile` 提供了一个特殊的编译选项 `make help` ，这个选项可以生成所有的可用目标和一些能传给 `make` 的有效的命令行参数。举个例子，`make V=1` 会在构建过程中输出详细的编译信息，第一个 `ifeq` 就是检查传递给 make 的 `V=n` 选项。 + +```Makefile +ifeq ("$(origin V)", "command line") + KBUILD_VERBOSE = $(V) +endif +ifndef KBUILD_VERBOSE + KBUILD_VERBOSE = 0 +endif + +ifeq ($(KBUILD_VERBOSE),1) + quiet = + Q = +else + quiet=quiet_ + Q = @ +endif + +export quiet Q KBUILD_VERBOSE +``` +如果 `V=n` 这个选项传给了 `make` ，系统就会给变量 `KBUILD_VERBOSE` 选项附上 `V` 的值，否则的话`KBUILD_VERBOSE` 就会为 `0`。然后系统会检查 `KBUILD_VERBOSE` 的值，以此来决定 `quiet` 和`Q` 的值。符号 `@` 控制命令的输出，如果它被放在一个命令之前，这条命令的输出将会是 `CC scripts/mod/empty.o`，而不是`Compiling .... scripts/mod/empty.o`（LCTT 译注：CC 在 makefile 中一般都是编译命令）。在这段最后，系统导出了所有的变量。 + +下一个 `ifeq` 语句检查的是传递给 `make` 的选项 `O=/dir`，这个选项允许在指定的目录 `dir` 输出所有的结果文件： + +```Makefile +ifeq ($(KBUILD_SRC),) + +ifeq ("$(origin O)", "command line") + KBUILD_OUTPUT := $(O) +endif + +ifneq ($(KBUILD_OUTPUT),) +saved-output := $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) +KBUILD_OUTPUT := $(shell mkdir -p $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) && cd $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) \ + && /bin/pwd) +$(if $(KBUILD_OUTPUT),, \ + $(error failed to create output directory "$(saved-output)")) + +sub-make: FORCE + $(Q)$(MAKE) -C $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) KBUILD_SRC=$(CURDIR) \ + -f $(CURDIR)/Makefile $(filter-out _all sub-make,$(MAKECMDGOALS)) + +skip-makefile := 1 +endif # ifneq ($(KBUILD_OUTPUT),) +endif # ifeq ($(KBUILD_SRC),) +``` + +系统会检查变量 `KBUILD_SRC`，它代表内核代码的顶层目录，如果它是空的（第一次执行 makefile 时总是空的），我们会设置变量 `KBUILD_OUTPUT` 为传递给选项 `O` 的值（如果这个选项被传进来了）。下一步会检查变量 `KBUILD_OUTPUT` ，如果已经设置好，那么接下来会做以下几件事： + +* 将变量 `KBUILD_OUTPUT` 的值保存到临时变量 `saved-output`； +* 尝试创建给定的输出目录； +* 检查创建的输出目录，如果失败了就打印错误； +* 如果成功创建了输出目录，那么就在新目录重新执行 `make` 命令（参见选项`-C`）。 + +下一个 `ifeq` 语句会检查传递给 make 的选项 `C` 和 `M`： + +```Makefile +ifeq ("$(origin C)", "command line") + KBUILD_CHECKSRC = $(C) +endif +ifndef KBUILD_CHECKSRC + KBUILD_CHECKSRC = 0 +endif + +ifeq ("$(origin M)", "command line") + KBUILD_EXTMOD := $(M) +endif +``` + +第一个选项 `C` 会告诉 `makefile` 需要使用环境变量 `$CHECK` 提供的工具来检查全部 `c` 代码，默认情况下会使用[sparse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse)。第二个选项 `M` 会用来编译外部模块（本文不做讨论）。 + +系统还会检查变量 `KBUILD_SRC`，如果 `KBUILD_SRC` 没有被设置，系统会设置变量 `srctree` 为`.`： + +```Makefile +ifeq ($(KBUILD_SRC),) + srctree := . +endif + +objtree := . +src := $(srctree) +obj := $(objtree) + +export srctree objtree VPATH +``` + +这将会告诉 `Makefile` 内核的源码树就在执行 `make` 命令的目录，然后要设置 `objtree` 和其他变量为这个目录，并且将这些变量导出。接着就是要获取 `SUBARCH` 的值，这个变量代表了当前的系统架构（LCTT 译注：一般都指CPU 架构）： + +```Makefile +SUBARCH := $(shell uname -m | sed -e s/i.86/x86/ -e s/x86_64/x86/ \ + -e s/sun4u/sparc64/ \ + -e s/arm.*/arm/ -e s/sa110/arm/ \ + -e s/s390x/s390/ -e s/parisc64/parisc/ \ + -e s/ppc.*/powerpc/ -e s/mips.*/mips/ \ + -e s/sh[234].*/sh/ -e s/aarch64.*/arm64/ ) +``` + +如你所见，系统执行 [uname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uname) 得到机器、操作系统和架构的信息。因为我们得到的是 `uname` 的输出，所以我们需要做一些处理再赋给变量 `SUBARCH` 。获得 `SUBARCH` 之后就要设置`SRCARCH` 和 `hfr-arch`，`SRCARCH` 提供了硬件架构相关代码的目录，`hfr-arch` 提供了相关头文件的目录： + +```Makefile +ifeq ($(ARCH),i386) + SRCARCH := x86 +endif +ifeq ($(ARCH),x86_64) + SRCARCH := x86 +endif + +hdr-arch := $(SRCARCH) +``` + +注意：`ARCH` 是 `SUBARCH` 的别名。如果没有设置过代表内核配置文件路径的变量 `KCONFIG_CONFIG`，下一步系统会设置它，默认情况下就是 `.config` ： + +```Makefile +KCONFIG_CONFIG ?= .config +export KCONFIG_CONFIG +``` + +以及编译内核过程中要用到的 [shell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_%28computing%29) + +```Makefile +CONFIG_SHELL := $(shell if [ -x "$$BASH" ]; then echo $$BASH; \ + else if [ -x /bin/bash ]; then echo /bin/bash; \ + else echo sh; fi ; fi) +``` + +接下来就要设置一组和编译内核的编译器相关的变量。我们会设置主机的 `C` 和 `C++` 的编译器及相关配置项： + +```Makefile +HOSTCC = gcc +HOSTCXX = g++ +HOSTCFLAGS = -Wall -Wmissing-prototypes -Wstrict-prototypes -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -std=gnu89 +HOSTCXXFLAGS = -O2 +``` + +接下来会去适配代表编译器的变量 `CC`，那为什么还要 `HOST*` 这些变量呢？这是因为 `CC` 是编译内核过程中要使用的目标架构的编译器，但是 `HOSTCC` 是要被用来编译一组 `host` 程序的（下面我们就会看到）。 + +然后我们就看到变量 `KBUILD_MODULES` 和 `KBUILD_BUILTIN` 的定义，这两个变量决定了我们要编译什么东西（内核、模块或者两者）： + +```Makefile +KBUILD_MODULES := +KBUILD_BUILTIN := 1 + +ifeq ($(MAKECMDGOALS),modules) + KBUILD_BUILTIN := $(if $(CONFIG_MODVERSIONS),1) +endif +``` + +在这我们可以看到这些变量的定义，并且，如果们仅仅传递了 `modules` 给 `make`，变量 `KBUILD_BUILTIN` 会依赖于内核配置选项 `CONFIG_MODVERSIONS`。 + +下一步操作是引入下面的文件： + +```Makefile +include scripts/Kbuild.include +``` + +文件 [Kbuild](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/kbuild.txt) 或者又叫做 `Kernel Build System` 是一个用来管理构建内核及其模块的特殊框架。`kbuild` 文件的语法与 makefile 一样。文件[scripts/Kbuild.include](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/Kbuild.include) 为 `kbuild` 系统提供了一些常规的定义。因为我们包含了这个 `kbuild` 文件，我们可以看到和不同工具关联的这些变量的定义，这些工具会在内核和模块编译过程中被使用（比如链接器、编译器、来自 [binutils](http://www.gnu.org/software/binutils/) 的二进制工具包 ，等等）： + +```Makefile +AS = $(CROSS_COMPILE)as +LD = $(CROSS_COMPILE)ld +CC = $(CROSS_COMPILE)gcc +CPP = $(CC) -E +AR = $(CROSS_COMPILE)ar +NM = $(CROSS_COMPILE)nm +STRIP = $(CROSS_COMPILE)strip +OBJCOPY = $(CROSS_COMPILE)objcopy +OBJDUMP = $(CROSS_COMPILE)objdump +AWK = awk +... +... +... +``` + +在这些定义好的变量后面，我们又定义了两个变量：`USERINCLUDE` 和 `LINUXINCLUDE`。他们包含了头文件的路径（第一个是给用户用的，第二个是给内核用的）： + +```Makefile +USERINCLUDE := \ + -I$(srctree)/arch/$(hdr-arch)/include/uapi \ + -Iarch/$(hdr-arch)/include/generated/uapi \ + -I$(srctree)/include/uapi \ + -Iinclude/generated/uapi \ + -include $(srctree)/include/linux/kconfig.h + +LINUXINCLUDE := \ + -I$(srctree)/arch/$(hdr-arch)/include \ + ... +``` + +以及给 C 编译器的标准标志： + +```Makefile +KBUILD_CFLAGS := -Wall -Wundef -Wstrict-prototypes -Wno-trigraphs \ + -fno-strict-aliasing -fno-common \ + -Werror-implicit-function-declaration \ + -Wno-format-security \ + -std=gnu89 +``` + +这并不是最终确定的编译器标志，它们还可以在其他 makefile 里面更新（比如 `arch/` 里面的 kbuild）。变量定义完之后，全部会被导出供其他 makefile 使用。 + +下面的两个变量 `RCS_FIND_IGNORE` 和 `RCS_TAR_IGNORE` 包含了被版本控制系统忽略的文件： + +```Makefile +export RCS_FIND_IGNORE := \( -name SCCS -o -name BitKeeper -o -name .svn -o \ + -name CVS -o -name .pc -o -name .hg -o -name .git \) \ + -prune -o +export RCS_TAR_IGNORE := --exclude SCCS --exclude BitKeeper --exclude .svn \ + --exclude CVS --exclude .pc --exclude .hg --exclude .git +``` + +这就是全部了，我们已经完成了所有的准备工作，下一个点就是如果构建`vmlinux`。 + +###直面内核构建 + +现在我们已经完成了所有的准备工作，根 makefile（注：内核根目录下的 makefile）的下一步工作就是和编译内核相关的了。在这之前，我们不会在终端看到 `make` 命令输出的任何东西。但是现在编译的第一步开始了，这里我们需要从内核根 makefile 的 [598](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile#L598) 行开始，这里可以看到目标`vmlinux`： + +```Makefile +all: vmlinux + include arch/$(SRCARCH)/Makefile +``` + +不要操心我们略过的从 `export RCS_FIND_IGNORE.....` 到 `all: vmlinux.....` 这一部分 makefile 代码，他们只是负责根据各种配置文件（`make *.config`）生成不同目标内核的，因为之前我就说了这一部分我们只讨论构建内核的通用途径。 + +目标 `all:` 是在命令行如果不指定具体目标时默认使用的目标。你可以看到这里包含了架构相关的 makefile（在这里就指的是 [arch/x86/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile)）。从这一时刻起，我们会从这个 makefile 继续进行下去。如我们所见，目标 `all` 依赖于根 makefile 后面声明的 `vmlinux`： + +```Makefile +vmlinux: scripts/link-vmlinux.sh $(vmlinux-deps) FORCE +``` + +`vmlinux` 是 linux 内核的静态链接可执行文件格式。脚本 [scripts/link-vmlinux.sh](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/link-vmlinux.sh) 把不同的编译好的子模块链接到一起形成了 vmlinux。 + +第二个目标是 `vmlinux-deps`，它的定义如下： + +```Makefile +vmlinux-deps := $(KBUILD_LDS) $(KBUILD_VMLINUX_INIT) $(KBUILD_VMLINUX_MAIN) +``` + +它是由内核代码下的每个顶级目录的 `built-in.o` 组成的。之后我们还会检查内核所有的目录，`kbuild` 会编译各个目录下所有的对应 `$(obj-y)` 的源文件。接着调用 `$(LD) -r` 把这些文件合并到一个 `build-in.o` 文件里。此时我们还没有`vmlinux-deps`，所以目标 `vmlinux` 现在还不会被构建。对我而言 `vmlinux-deps` 包含下面的文件： + +``` +arch/x86/kernel/vmlinux.lds arch/x86/kernel/head_64.o +arch/x86/kernel/head64.o arch/x86/kernel/head.o +init/built-in.o usr/built-in.o +arch/x86/built-in.o kernel/built-in.o +mm/built-in.o fs/built-in.o +ipc/built-in.o security/built-in.o +crypto/built-in.o block/built-in.o +lib/lib.a arch/x86/lib/lib.a +lib/built-in.o arch/x86/lib/built-in.o +drivers/built-in.o sound/built-in.o +firmware/built-in.o arch/x86/pci/built-in.o +arch/x86/power/built-in.o arch/x86/video/built-in.o +net/built-in.o +``` + +下一个可以被执行的目标如下： + +```Makefile +$(sort $(vmlinux-deps)): $(vmlinux-dirs) ; +$(vmlinux-dirs): prepare scripts + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=$@ +``` + +就像我们看到的，`vmlinux-dir` 依赖于两部分：`prepare` 和 `scripts`。第一个 `prepare` 定义在内核的根 `makefile` 中，准备工作分成三个阶段： + +```Makefile +prepare: prepare0 +prepare0: archprepare FORCE + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=. +archprepare: archheaders archscripts prepare1 scripts_basic + +prepare1: prepare2 $(version_h) include/generated/utsrelease.h \ + include/config/auto.conf + $(cmd_crmodverdir) +prepare2: prepare3 outputmakefile asm-generic +``` + +第一个 `prepare0` 展开到 `archprepare` ，后者又展开到 `archheader` 和 `archscripts`，这两个变量定义在 `x86_64` 相关的 [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile)。让我们看看这个文件。`x86_64` 特定的 makefile 从变量定义开始，这些变量都是和特定架构的配置文件 ([defconfig](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/arch/x86/configs)，等等)有关联。在定义了编译 [16-bit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode) 代码的编译选项之后，根据变量 `BITS` 的值，如果是 `32`， 汇编代码、链接器、以及其它很多东西（全部的定义都可以在[arch/x86/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile)找到）对应的参数就是 `i386`，而 `64` 就对应的是 `x86_84`。 + +第一个目标是 makefile 生成的系统调用列表（syscall table）中的 `archheaders` ： + +```Makefile +archheaders: + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=arch/x86/entry/syscalls all +``` + +第二个目标是 makefile 里的 `archscripts`： + +```Makefile +archscripts: scripts_basic + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=arch/x86/tools relocs +``` + + 我们可以看到 `archscripts` 是依赖于根 [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile)里的`scripts_basic` 。首先我们可以看出 `scripts_basic` 是按照 [scripts/basic](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/basic/Makefile) 的 makefile 执行 make 的： + +```Maklefile +scripts_basic: + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=scripts/basic +``` + +`scripts/basic/Makefile` 包含了编译两个主机程序 `fixdep` 和 `bin2` 的目标： + +```Makefile +hostprogs-y := fixdep +hostprogs-$(CONFIG_BUILD_BIN2C) += bin2c +always := $(hostprogs-y) + +$(addprefix $(obj)/,$(filter-out fixdep,$(always))): $(obj)/fixdep +``` + +第一个工具是 `fixdep`：用来优化 [gcc](https://gcc.gnu.org/) 生成的依赖列表，然后在重新编译源文件的时候告诉make。第二个工具是 `bin2c`，它依赖于内核配置选项 `CONFIG_BUILD_BIN2C`，并且它是一个用来将标准输入接口（LCTT 译注：即 stdin）收到的二进制流通过标准输出接口（即：stdout）转换成 C 头文件的非常小的 C 程序。你可能注意到这里有些奇怪的标志，如 `hostprogs-y` 等。这个标志用于所有的 `kbuild` 文件，更多的信息你可以从[documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/makefiles.txt) 获得。在我们这里， `hostprogs-y` 告诉 `kbuild` 这里有个名为 `fixed` 的程序，这个程序会通过和 `Makefile` 相同目录的 `fixdep.c` 编译而来。 + +执行 make 之后，终端的第一个输出就是 `kbuild` 的结果： + +``` +$ make + HOSTCC scripts/basic/fixdep +``` + +当目标 `script_basic` 被执行，目标 `archscripts` 就会 make [arch/x86/tools](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/tools/Makefile) 下的 makefile 和目标 `relocs`: + +```Makefile +$(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=arch/x86/tools relocs +``` + +包含了[重定位](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relocation_%28computing%29) 的信息的代码 `relocs_32.c` 和 `relocs_64.c` 将会被编译，这可以在`make` 的输出中看到： + +```Makefile + HOSTCC arch/x86/tools/relocs_32.o + HOSTCC arch/x86/tools/relocs_64.o + HOSTCC arch/x86/tools/relocs_common.o + HOSTLD arch/x86/tools/relocs +``` + +在编译完 `relocs.c` 之后会检查 `version.h`: + +```Makefile +$(version_h): $(srctree)/Makefile FORCE + $(call filechk,version.h) + $(Q)rm -f $(old_version_h) +``` + +我们可以在输出看到它： + +``` +CHK include/config/kernel.release +``` + +以及在内核的根 Makefiel 使用 `arch/x86/include/generated/asm` 的目标 `asm-generic` 来构建 `generic` 汇编头文件。在目标 `asm-generic` 之后，`archprepare` 就完成了，所以目标 `prepare0` 会接着被执行，如我上面所写： + +```Makefile +prepare0: archprepare FORCE + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=. +``` + +注意 `build`，它是定义在文件 [scripts/Kbuild.include](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/Kbuild.include)，内容是这样的： + +```Makefile +build := -f $(srctree)/scripts/Makefile.build obj +``` + +或者在我们的例子中，它就是当前源码目录路径：`.`： + +```Makefile +$(Q)$(MAKE) -f $(srctree)/scripts/Makefile.build obj=. +``` + +脚本 [scripts/Makefile.build](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/Makefile.build) 通过参数 `obj` 给定的目录找到 `Kbuild` 文件，然后引入 `kbuild` 文件： + +```Makefile +include $(kbuild-file) +``` + +并根据这个构建目标。我们这里 `.` 包含了生成 `kernel/bounds.s` 和 `arch/x86/kernel/asm-offsets.s` 的 [Kbuild](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Kbuild) 文件。在此之后，目标 `prepare` 就完成了它的工作。 `vmlinux-dirs` 也依赖于第二个目标 `scripts` ，它会编译接下来的几个程序：`filealias`，`mk_elfconfig`，`modpost` 等等。之后，`scripts/host-programs` 就可以开始编译我们的目标 `vmlinux-dirs` 了。 + +首先，我们先来理解一下 `vmlinux-dirs` 都包含了那些东西。在我们的例子中它包含了下列内核目录的路径： + +``` +init usr arch/x86 kernel mm fs ipc security crypto block +drivers sound firmware arch/x86/pci arch/x86/power +arch/x86/video net lib arch/x86/lib +``` + +我们可以在内核的根 [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) 里找到 `vmlinux-dirs` 的定义： + +```Makefile +vmlinux-dirs := $(patsubst %/,%,$(filter %/, $(init-y) $(init-m) \ + $(core-y) $(core-m) $(drivers-y) $(drivers-m) \ + $(net-y) $(net-m) $(libs-y) $(libs-m))) + +init-y := init/ +drivers-y := drivers/ sound/ firmware/ +net-y := net/ +libs-y := lib/ +... +... +... +``` + +这里我们借助函数 `patsubst` 和 `filter`去掉了每个目录路径里的符号 `/`，并且把结果放到 `vmlinux-dirs` 里。所以我们就有了 `vmlinux-dirs` 里的目录列表，以及下面的代码： + +```Makefile +$(vmlinux-dirs): prepare scripts + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=$@ +``` + +符号 `$@` 在这里代表了 `vmlinux-dirs`，这就表明程序会递归遍历从 `vmlinux-dirs` 以及它内部的全部目录（依赖于配置），并且在对应的目录下执行 `make` 命令。我们可以在输出看到结果： + +``` + CC init/main.o + CHK include/generated/compile.h + CC init/version.o + CC init/do_mounts.o + ... + CC arch/x86/crypto/glue_helper.o + AS arch/x86/crypto/aes-x86_64-asm_64.o + CC arch/x86/crypto/aes_glue.o + ... + AS arch/x86/entry/entry_64.o + AS arch/x86/entry/thunk_64.o + CC arch/x86/entry/syscall_64.o +``` + +每个目录下的源代码将会被编译并且链接到 `built-io.o` 里： + +``` +$ find . -name built-in.o +./arch/x86/crypto/built-in.o +./arch/x86/crypto/sha-mb/built-in.o +./arch/x86/net/built-in.o +./init/built-in.o +./usr/built-in.o +... +... +``` + +好了，所有的 `built-in.o` 都构建完了，现在我们回到目标 `vmlinux` 上。你应该还记得，目标 `vmlinux` 是在内核的根makefile 里。在链接 `vmlinux` 之前，系统会构建 [samples](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/samples), [Documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/Documentation) 等等，但是如上文所述，我不会在本文描述这些。 + +```Makefile +vmlinux: scripts/link-vmlinux.sh $(vmlinux-deps) FORCE + ... + ... + +$(call if_changed,link-vmlinux) +``` + +你可以看到，调用脚本 [scripts/link-vmlinux.sh](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/link-vmlinux.sh) 的主要目的是把所有的 `built-in.o` 链接成一个静态可执行文件，和生成 [System.map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System.map)。 最后我们来看看下面的输出： + +``` + LINK vmlinux + LD vmlinux.o + MODPOST vmlinux.o + GEN .version + CHK include/generated/compile.h + UPD include/generated/compile.h + CC init/version.o + LD init/built-in.o + KSYM .tmp_kallsyms1.o + KSYM .tmp_kallsyms2.o + LD vmlinux + SORTEX vmlinux + SYSMAP System.map +``` + +`vmlinux` 和`System.map` 生成在内核源码树根目录下。 + +``` +$ ls vmlinux System.map +System.map vmlinux +``` + +这就是全部了，`vmlinux` 构建好了，下一步就是创建 [bzImage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux#bzImage). + +###制作bzImage + +`bzImage` 就是压缩了的 linux 内核镜像。我们可以在构建了 `vmlinux` 之后通过执行 `make bzImage` 获得`bzImage`。同时我们可以仅仅执行 `make` 而不带任何参数也可以生成 `bzImage` ，因为它是在 [arch/x86/kernel/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile) 里预定义的、默认生成的镜像： + +```Makefile +all: bzImage +``` + +让我们看看这个目标，它能帮助我们理解这个镜像是怎么构建的。我已经说过了 `bzImage` 是被定义在 [arch/x86/kernel/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile)，定义如下： + +```Makefile +bzImage: vmlinux + $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=$(boot) $(KBUILD_IMAGE) + $(Q)mkdir -p $(objtree)/arch/$(UTS_MACHINE)/boot + $(Q)ln -fsn ../../x86/boot/bzImage $(objtree)/arch/$(UTS_MACHINE)/boot/$@ +``` + +在这里我们可以看到第一次为 boot 目录执行 `make`，在我们的例子里是这样的： + +```Makefile +boot := arch/x86/boot +``` + +现在的主要目标是编译目录 `arch/x86/boot` 和 `arch/x86/boot/compressed` 的代码，构建 `setup.bin` 和 `vmlinux.bin`，最后用这两个文件生成 `bzImage`。第一个目标是定义在 [arch/x86/boot/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/Makefile) 的 `$(obj)/setup.elf`: + +```Makefile +$(obj)/setup.elf: $(src)/setup.ld $(SETUP_OBJS) FORCE + $(call if_changed,ld) +``` + +我们已经在目录 `arch/x86/boot` 有了链接脚本 `setup.ld`，和扩展到 `boot` 目录下全部源代码的变量 `SETUP_OBJS` 。我们可以看看第一个输出： + +```Makefile + AS arch/x86/boot/bioscall.o + CC arch/x86/boot/cmdline.o + AS arch/x86/boot/copy.o + HOSTCC arch/x86/boot/mkcpustr + CPUSTR arch/x86/boot/cpustr.h + CC arch/x86/boot/cpu.o + CC arch/x86/boot/cpuflags.o + CC arch/x86/boot/cpucheck.o + CC arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.o + CC arch/x86/boot/edd.o +``` + +下一个源码文件是 [arch/x86/boot/header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S)，但是我们不能现在就编译它，因为这个目标依赖于下面两个头文件： + +```Makefile +$(obj)/header.o: $(obj)/voffset.h $(obj)/zoffset.h +``` + +第一个头文件 `voffset.h` 是使用 `sed` 脚本生成的，包含用 `nm` 工具从 `vmlinux` 获取的两个地址： + +```C +#define VO__end 0xffffffff82ab0000 +#define VO__text 0xffffffff81000000 +``` + +这两个地址是内核的起始和结束地址。第二个头文件 `zoffset.h` 在 [arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile) 可以看出是依赖于目标 `vmlinux`的： + +```Makefile +$(obj)/zoffset.h: $(obj)/compressed/vmlinux FORCE + $(call if_changed,zoffset) +``` + +目标 `$(obj)/compressed/vmlinux` 依赖于 `vmlinux-objs-y` —— 说明需要编译目录 [arch/x86/boot/compressed](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/arch/x86/boot/compressed) 下的源代码，然后生成 `vmlinux.bin`、`vmlinux.bin.bz2`，和编译工具 `mkpiggy`。我们可以在下面的输出看出来： + +```Makefile + LDS arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds + AS arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.o + CC arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.o + CC arch/x86/boot/compressed/string.o + CC arch/x86/boot/compressed/cmdline.o + OBJCOPY arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.bin + BZIP2 arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.bin.bz2 + HOSTCC arch/x86/boot/compressed/mkpiggy +``` + +`vmlinux.bin` 是去掉了调试信息和注释的 `vmlinux` 二进制文件，加上了占用了 `u32` （LCTT 译注：即4-Byte）的长度信息的 `vmlinux.bin.all` 压缩后就是 `vmlinux.bin.bz2`。其中 `vmlinux.bin.all` 包含了 `vmlinux.bin` 和`vmlinux.relocs`（LCTT 译注：vmlinux 的重定位信息），其中 `vmlinux.relocs` 是 `vmlinux` 经过程序 `relocs` 处理之后的 `vmlinux` 镜像（见上文所述）。我们现在已经获取到了这些文件，汇编文件 `piggy.S` 将会被 `mkpiggy` 生成、然后编译： + +```Makefile + MKPIGGY arch/x86/boot/compressed/piggy.S + AS arch/x86/boot/compressed/piggy.o +``` + +这个汇编文件会包含经过计算得来的、压缩内核的偏移信息。处理完这个汇编文件，我们就可以看到 `zoffset` 生成了： + +```Makefile + ZOFFSET arch/x86/boot/zoffset.h +``` + +现在 `zoffset.h` 和 `voffset.h` 已经生成了，[arch/x86/boot](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/arch/x86/boot/) 里的源文件可以继续编译： + +```Makefile + AS arch/x86/boot/header.o + CC arch/x86/boot/main.o + CC arch/x86/boot/mca.o + CC arch/x86/boot/memory.o + CC arch/x86/boot/pm.o + AS arch/x86/boot/pmjump.o + CC arch/x86/boot/printf.o + CC arch/x86/boot/regs.o + CC arch/x86/boot/string.o + CC arch/x86/boot/tty.o + CC arch/x86/boot/video.o + CC arch/x86/boot/video-mode.o + CC arch/x86/boot/video-vga.o + CC arch/x86/boot/video-vesa.o + CC arch/x86/boot/video-bios.o +``` + +所有的源代码会被编译，他们最终会被链接到 `setup.elf` ： + +```Makefile + LD arch/x86/boot/setup.elf +``` + +或者： + +``` +ld -m elf_x86_64 -T arch/x86/boot/setup.ld arch/x86/boot/a20.o arch/x86/boot/bioscall.o arch/x86/boot/cmdline.o arch/x86/boot/copy.o arch/x86/boot/cpu.o arch/x86/boot/cpuflags.o arch/x86/boot/cpucheck.o arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.o arch/x86/boot/edd.o arch/x86/boot/header.o arch/x86/boot/main.o arch/x86/boot/mca.o arch/x86/boot/memory.o arch/x86/boot/pm.o arch/x86/boot/pmjump.o arch/x86/boot/printf.o arch/x86/boot/regs.o arch/x86/boot/string.o arch/x86/boot/tty.o arch/x86/boot/video.o arch/x86/boot/video-mode.o arch/x86/boot/version.o arch/x86/boot/video-vga.o arch/x86/boot/video-vesa.o arch/x86/boot/video-bios.o -o arch/x86/boot/setup.elf +``` + +最后的两件事是创建包含目录 `arch/x86/boot/*` 下的编译过的代码的 `setup.bin`： + +``` +objcopy -O binary arch/x86/boot/setup.elf arch/x86/boot/setup.bin +``` + +以及从 `vmlinux` 生成 `vmlinux.bin` : + +``` +objcopy -O binary -R .note -R .comment -S arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux arch/x86/boot/vmlinux.bin +``` + +最最后，我们编译主机程序 [arch/x86/boot/tools/build.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/tools/build.c)，它将会用来把 `setup.bin` 和 `vmlinux.bin` 打包成 `bzImage`: + +``` +arch/x86/boot/tools/build arch/x86/boot/setup.bin arch/x86/boot/vmlinux.bin arch/x86/boot/zoffset.h arch/x86/boot/bzImage +``` + +实际上 `bzImage` 就是把 `setup.bin` 和 `vmlinux.bin` 连接到一起。最终我们会看到输出结果，就和那些用源码编译过内核的同行的结果一样： + +``` +Setup is 16268 bytes (padded to 16384 bytes). +System is 4704 kB +CRC 94a88f9a +Kernel: arch/x86/boot/bzImage is ready (#5) +``` + + +全部结束。 + +###结论 + +这就是本文的结尾部分。本文我们了解了编译内核的全部步骤：从执行 `make` 命令开始，到最后生成 `bzImage`。我知道，linux 内核的 makefile 和构建 linux 的过程第一眼看起来可能比较迷惑，但是这并不是很难。希望本文可以帮助你理解构建 linux 内核的整个流程。 + + +###链接 + +* [GNU make util](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_%28software%29) +* [Linux kernel top Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) +* [cross-compilation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_compiler) +* [Ctags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctags) +* [sparse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse) +* [bzImage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux#bzImage) +* [uname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uname) +* [shell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_%28computing%29) +* [Kbuild](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/kbuild.txt) +* [binutils](http://www.gnu.org/software/binutils/) +* [gcc](https://gcc.gnu.org/) +* [Documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/makefiles.txt) +* [System.map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System.map) +* [Relocation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relocation_%28computing%29) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/master/Misc/how_kernel_compiled.md + +译者：[oska874](https://github.com/oska874) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/20150730 How to Setup iTOP (IT Operational Portal) on CentOS 7.md b/published/201509/20150730 How to Setup iTOP (IT Operational Portal) on CentOS 7.md similarity index 83% rename from translated/tech/20150730 How to Setup iTOP (IT Operational Portal) on CentOS 7.md rename to published/201509/20150730 How to Setup iTOP (IT Operational Portal) on CentOS 7.md index dd20493d77..a9adc3e68c 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150730 How to Setup iTOP (IT Operational Portal) on CentOS 7.md +++ b/published/201509/20150730 How to Setup iTOP (IT Operational Portal) on CentOS 7.md @@ -1,16 +1,17 @@ -如何在CentOS上安装iTOP(IT操作门户) +如何在 CentOS 7 上安装开源 ITIL 门户 iTOP ================================================================================ -iTOP简单来说是一个简单的基于网络的开源IT服务管理工具。它有所有的ITIL功能包括服务台、配置管理、事件管理、问题管理、更改管理和服务管理。iTOP依赖于Apache/IIS、MySQL和PHP，因此它可以运行在任何支持这些软件的操作系统中。因为iTOP是一个网络程序，因此你不必在用户的PC端任何客户端程序。一个简单的浏览器就足够每天的IT环境操作了。 + +iTOP是一个简单的基于Web的开源IT服务管理工具。它有所有的ITIL功能，包括服务台、配置管理、事件管理、问题管理、变更管理和服务管理。iTOP依赖于Apache/IIS、MySQL和PHP，因此它可以运行在任何支持这些软件的操作系统中。因为iTOP是一个Web程序，因此你不必在用户的PC端任何客户端程序。一个简单的浏览器就足够每天的IT环境操作了。 我们要在一台有满足基本需求的LAMP环境的CentOS 7上安装和配置iTOP。 ### 下载 iTOP ### -iTOP的下载包现在在SOurceForge上，我们可以从这获取它的官方[链接][1]。 +iTOP的下载包现在在SourceForge上，我们可以从这获取它的官方[链接][1]。 ![itop download](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/1-itop-download.png) -我们从这里的连接用wget命令获取压缩文件 +我们从这里的连接用wget命令获取压缩文件。 [root@centos-007 ~]# wget http://downloads.sourceforge.net/project/itop/itop/2.1.0/iTop-2.1.0-2127.zip @@ -40,7 +41,7 @@ iTOP的下载包现在在SOurceForge上，我们可以从这获取它的官方[ installation.xml itop-change-mgmt-itil itop-incident-mgmt-itil itop-request-mgmt-itil itop-tickets itop-attachments itop-config itop-knownerror-mgmt itop-service-mgmt itop-virtualization-mgmt -在解压的目录下，通过不同的数据模型用复制命令迁移需要的扩展从datamodels复制到web扩展目录下。 +在解压的目录下，使用如下的 cp 命令将不同的数据模型从web 下的 datamodels 目录下复制到 extensions 目录，来迁移需要的扩展。 [root@centos-7 2.x]# pwd /var/www/html/itop/web/datamodels/2.x @@ -50,19 +51,19 @@ iTOP的下载包现在在SOurceForge上，我们可以从这获取它的官方[ 大多数服务端设置和配置已经完成了。最后我们安装web界面来完成安装。 -打开浏览器使用ip地址或者FQDN来访问WordPress web目录。 +打开浏览器使用ip地址或者完整域名来访问iTop 的 web目录。 http://servers_ip_address/itop/web/ 你会被重定向到iTOP的web安装页面。让我们按照要求配置，就像在这篇教程中做的那样。 -#### 先决要求验证 #### +#### 验证先决要求 #### 这一步你就会看到验证完成的欢迎界面。如果你看到了一些警告信息，你需要先安装这些软件来解决这些问题。 ![mcrypt missing](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/2-itop-web-install.png) -这一步一个叫php mcrypt的可选包丢失了。下载下面的rpm包接着尝试安装php mcrypt包。 +这一步有一个叫php mcrypt的可选包丢失了。下载下面的rpm包接着尝试安装php mcrypt包。 [root@centos-7 ~]#yum localinstall php-mcrypt-5.3.3-1.el6.x86_64.rpm libmcrypt-2.5.8-9.el6.x86_64.rpm. @@ -76,7 +77,7 @@ iTOP的下载包现在在SOurceForge上，我们可以从这获取它的官方[ #### iTop 许可协议 #### -勾选同意iTOP所有组件的许可协议并点击“NEXT”。 +勾选接受 iTOP所有组件的许可协议，并点击“NEXT”。 ![License Agreement](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/4.png) @@ -94,7 +95,7 @@ iTOP的下载包现在在SOurceForge上，我们可以从这获取它的官方[ #### 杂项参数 #### -让我们选择额外的参数来选择你是否需要安装一个演示内容或者使用全新的数据库，接着下一步。 +让我们选择额外的参数来选择你是否需要安装一个带有演示内容的数据库或者使用全新的数据库，接着下一步。 ![Misc Parameters](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/7.png) @@ -118,7 +119,7 @@ iTOP的下载包现在在SOurceForge上，我们可以从这获取它的官方[ #### 改变管理选项 #### -选择不同的ticket类型以便管理可用选项中的IT设备更改。我们选择ITTL更改管理选项。 +选择不同的ticket类型以便管理可用选项中的IT设备变更。我们选择ITTL变更管理选项。 ![ITIL Change](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/11.png) @@ -166,7 +167,7 @@ via: http://linoxide.com/tools/setup-itop-centos-7/ 作者：[Kashif Siddique][a] 译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201509/20150730 Howto Configure Nginx as Rreverse Proxy or Load Balancer with Weave and Docker.md b/published/201509/20150730 Howto Configure Nginx as Rreverse Proxy or Load Balancer with Weave and Docker.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0f08cf12fa --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150730 Howto Configure Nginx as Rreverse Proxy or Load Balancer with Weave and Docker.md @@ -0,0 +1,129 @@ +如何使用 Weave 以及 Docker 搭建 Nginx 反向代理/负载均衡服务器 +================================================================================ + +Hi， 今天我们将会学习如何使用 Weave 和 Docker 搭建 Nginx 的反向代理/负载均衡服务器。Weave 可以创建一个虚拟网络将 Docker 容器彼此连接在一起，支持跨主机部署及自动发现。它可以让我们更加专注于应用的开发，而不是基础架构。Weave 提供了一个如此棒的环境，仿佛它的所有容器都属于同个网络，不需要端口/映射/连接等的配置。容器中的应用提供的服务在 weave 网络中可以轻易地被外部世界访问，不论你的容器运行在哪里。在这个教程里我们将会使用 weave 快速并且简单地将 nginx web 服务器部署为一个负载均衡器，反向代理一个运行在 Amazon Web Services 里面多个节点上的 docker 容器中的简单 php 应用。这里我们将会介绍 WeaveDNS，它提供一个不需要改变代码就可以让容器利用主机名找到的简单方式，并且能够让其他容器通过主机名连接彼此。 + +在这篇教程里，我们将使用 nginx 来将负载均衡分配到一个运行 Apache 的容器集合。最简单轻松的方法就是使用 Weave 来把运行在 ubuntu 上的 docker 容器中的 nginx 配置成负载均衡服务器。 + +### 1. 搭建 AWS 实例 ### + +首先，我们需要搭建 Amzaon Web Service 实例，这样才能在 ubuntu 下用 weave 跑 docker 容器。我们将会使用[AWS 命令行][1] 来搭建和配置两个 AWS EC2 实例。在这里，我们使用最小的可用实例，t1.micro。我们需要一个有效的**Amazon Web Services 账户**使用 AWS 命令行界面来搭建和配置。我们先在 AWS 命令行界面下使用下面的命令将 github 上的 weave 仓库克隆下来。 + + $ git clone http://github.com/fintanr/weave-gs + $ cd weave-gs/aws-nginx-ubuntu-simple + +在克隆完仓库之后，我们执行下面的脚本，这个脚本将会部署两个 t1.micro 实例，每个实例中都是 ubuntu 作为操作系统并用 weave 跑着 docker 容器。 + + $ sudo ./demo-aws-setup.sh + +在这里，我们将会在以后用到这些实例的 IP 地址。这些地址储存在一个 weavedemo.env 文件中，这个文件创建于执行 demo-aws-setup.sh 脚本期间。为了获取这些 IP 地址，我们需要执行下面的命令，命令输出类似下面的信息。 + + $ cat weavedemo.env + + export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1=52.26.175.175 + export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST2=52.26.83.141 + export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOSTCOUNT=2 + export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOSTS=(52.26.175.175 52.26.83.141) + +请注意这些不是固定的 IP 地址，AWS 会为我们的实例动态地分配 IP 地址。 + +我们在 bash 下执行下面的命令使环境变量生效。 + + . ./weavedemo.env + +### 2. 启动 Weave 和 WeaveDNS ### + +在安装完实例之后，我们将会在每台主机上启动 weave 以及 weavedns。Weave 以及 weavedns 使得我们能够轻易地将容器部署到一个全新的基础架构以及配置中， 不需要改变代码，也不需要去理解像 Ambassador 容器以及 Link 机制之类的概念。下面是在第一台主机上启动 weave 以及 weavedns 的命令。 + + ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 + $ sudo weave launch + $ sudo weave launch-dns 10.2.1.1/24 + +下一步，我也准备在第二台主机上启动 weave 以及 weavedns。 + + ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST2 + $ sudo weave launch $WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 + $ sudo weave launch-dns 10.2.1.2/24 + +### 3. 启动应用容器 ### + +现在，我们准备跨两台主机启动六个容器，这两台主机都用 Apache2 Web 服务实例跑着简单的 php 网站。为了在第一个 Apache2 Web 服务器实例跑三个容器， 我们将会使用下面的命令。 + + ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 + $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.1/24 -h ws1.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache + $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.2/24 -h ws2.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache + $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.3/24 -h ws3.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache + +在那之后，我们将会在第二个实例上启动另外三个容器，请使用下面的命令。 + + ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST2 + $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.4/24 -h ws4.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache + $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.5/24 -h ws5.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache + $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.6/24 -h ws6.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache + +注意: 在这里，--with-dns 选项告诉容器使用 weavedns 来解析主机名，-h x.weave.local 则使得 weavedns 能够解析该主机。 + +### 4. 启动 Nginx 容器 ### + +在应用容器如预期的运行后，我们将会启动 nginx 容器，它将会在六个应用容器服务之间轮询并提供反向代理或者负载均衡。 为了启动 nginx 容器，请使用下面的命令。 + + ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 + $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.7/24 -ti -h nginx.weave.local -d -p 80:80 fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-simple + +因此，我们的 nginx 容器在 $WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 上公开地暴露成为一个 http 服务器。 + +### 5. 测试负载均衡服务器 ### + +为了测试我们的负载均衡服务器是否可以工作，我们执行一段可以发送 http 请求给 nginx 容器的脚本。我们将会发送6个请求，这样我们就能看到 nginx 在一次的轮询中服务于每台 web 服务器之间。 + + $ ./access-aws-hosts.sh + + { + "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", + "hostname" : "ws1.weave.local", + "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" + } + { + "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", + "hostname" : "ws2.weave.local", + "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" + } + { + "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", + "hostname" : "ws3.weave.local", + "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" + } + { + "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", + "hostname" : "ws4.weave.local", + "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" + } + { + "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", + "hostname" : "ws5.weave.local", + "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" + } + { + "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", + "hostname" : "ws6.weave.local", + "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" + } + +### 结束语 ### + +我们最终成功地将 nginx 配置成一个反向代理/负载均衡服务器，通过使用 weave 以及运行在 AWS（Amazon Web Service）EC2 里面的 ubuntu 服务器中的 docker。从上面的步骤输出可以清楚的看到我们已经成功地配置了 nginx。我们可以看到请求在一次轮询中被发送到6个应用容器，这些容器在 Apache2 Web 服务器中跑着 PHP 应用。在这里，我们部署了一个容器化的 PHP 应用，使用 nginx 横跨多台在 AWS EC2 上的主机而不需要改变代码，利用 weavedns 使得每个容器连接在一起，只需要主机名就够了，眼前的这些便捷， 都要归功于 weave 以及 weavedns。 + +如果你有任何的问题、建议、反馈，请在评论中注明，这样我们才能够做得更好，谢谢:-） + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/linux-how-to/nginx-load-balancer-weave-docker/ + +作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] +译者：[dingdongnigetou](https://github.com/dingdongnigetou) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/arunp/ +[1]:http://console.aws.amazon.com/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150803 Managing Linux Logs.md b/published/201509/20150803 Managing Linux Logs.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..dca518e531 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150803 Managing Linux Logs.md @@ -0,0 +1,418 @@ +Linux 日志管理指南 +================================================================================ + +管理日志的一个最好做法是将你的日志集中或整合到一个地方，特别是在你有许多服务器或多层级架构时。我们将告诉你为什么这是一个好主意，然后给出如何更容易的做这件事的一些小技巧。 + +### 集中管理日志的好处 ### + +如果你有很多服务器，查看某个日志文件可能会很麻烦。现代的网站和服务经常包括许多服务器层级、分布式的负载均衡器，等等。找到正确的日志将花费很长时间，甚至要花更长时间在登录服务器的相关问题上。没什么比发现你找的信息没有被保存下来更沮丧的了，或者本该保留的日志文件正好在重启后丢失了。 + +集中你的日志使它们查找更快速，可以帮助你更快速的解决产品问题。你不用猜测那个服务器存在问题，因为所有的日志在同一个地方。此外，你可以使用更强大的工具去分析它们，包括日志管理解决方案。一些解决方案能[转换纯文本日志][1]为一些字段，更容易查找和分析。 + +集中你的日志也可以使它们更易于管理： + +- 它们更安全，当它们备份归档到一个单独区域时会有意无意地丢失。如果你的服务器宕机或者无响应，你可以使用集中的日志去调试问题。 +- 你不用担心ssh或者低效的grep命令在陷入困境的系统上需要更多的资源。 +- 你不用担心磁盘占满，这个能让你的服务器死机。 +- 你能保持你的产品服务器的安全性，只是为了查看日志无需给你所有团队登录权限。给你的团队从日志集中区域访问日志权限更安全。 + +随着集中日志管理，你仍需处理由于网络联通性不好或者耗尽大量网络带宽从而导致不能传输日志到中心区域的风险。在下面的章节我们将要讨论如何聪明的解决这些问题。 + +### 流行的日志归集工具 ### + +在 Linux 上最常见的日志归集是通过使用 syslog 守护进程或者日志代理。syslog 守护进程支持本地日志的采集，然后通过syslog 协议传输日志到中心服务器。你可以使用很多流行的守护进程来归集你的日志文件： + +- [rsyslog][2] 是一个轻量后台程序，在大多数 Linux 分支上已经安装。 +- [syslog-ng][3] 是第二流行的 Linux 系统日志后台程序。 +- [logstash][4] 是一个重量级的代理，它可以做更多高级加工和分析。 +- [fluentd][5] 是另一个具有高级处理能力的代理。 + +Rsyslog 是集中日志数据最流行的后台程序，因为它在大多数 Linux 分支上是被默认安装的。你不用下载或安装它，并且它是轻量的，所以不需要占用你太多的系统资源。 + +如果你需要更多先进的过滤或者自定义分析功能，如果你不在乎额外的系统负载，Logstash 是另一个最流行的选择。 + +### 配置 rsyslog.conf ### + +既然 rsyslog 是最广泛使用的系统日志程序，我们将展示如何配置它为日志中心。它的全局配置文件位于 /etc/rsyslog.conf。它加载模块，设置全局指令，和包含位于目录 /etc/rsyslog.d 中的应用的特有的配置。目录中包含的 /etc/rsyslog.d/50-default.conf 指示 rsyslog 将系统日志写到文件。在 [rsyslog 文档][6]中你可以阅读更多相关配置。 + +rsyslog 配置语言是是[RainerScript][7]。你可以给日志指定输入，就像将它们输出到另外一个位置一样。rsyslog 已经配置标准输入默认是 syslog ，所以你通常只需增加一个输出到你的日志服务器。这里有一个 rsyslog 输出到一个外部服务器的配置例子。在本例中，**BEBOP** 是一个服务器的主机名，所以你应该替换为你的自己的服务器名。 + + action(type="omfwd" protocol="tcp" target="BEBOP" port="514") + +你可以发送你的日志到一个有足够的存储容量的日志服务器来存储，提供查询，备份和分析。如果你存储日志到文件系统，那么你应该建立[日志轮转][8]来防止你的磁盘爆满。 + +作为一种选择，你可以发送这些日志到一个日志管理方案。如果你的解决方案是安装在本地你可以发送到系统文档中指定的本地主机和端口。如果你使用基于云提供商，你将发送它们到你的提供商特定的主机名和端口。 + +### 日志目录 ### + +你可以归集一个目录或者匹配一个通配符模式的所有文件。nxlog 和 syslog-ng 程序支持目录和通配符(*)。 + +常见的 rsyslog 不能直接监控目录。作为一种解决办法，你可以设置一个定时任务去监控这个目录的新文件，然后配置 rsyslog 来发送这些文件到目的地，比如你的日志管理系统。举个例子，日志管理提供商 Loggly 有一个开源版本的[目录监控脚本][9]。 + +### 哪个协议: UDP、TCP 或 RELP? ### + +当你使用网络传输数据时，有三个主流协议可以选择。UDP 在你自己的局域网是最常用的，TCP 用在互联网。如果你不能失去（任何）日志，就要使用更高级的 RELP 协议。 + +[UDP][10] 发送一个数据包，那只是一个单一的信息包。它是一个只外传的协议，所以它不会发送给你回执（ACK）。它只尝试发送包。当网络拥堵时，UDP 通常会巧妙的降级或者丢弃日志。它通常使用在类似局域网的可靠网络。 + +[TCP][11] 通过多个包和返回确认发送流式信息。TCP 会多次尝试发送数据包，但是受限于 [TCP 缓存][12]的大小。这是在互联网上发送送日志最常用的协议。 + +[RELP][13] 是这三个协议中最可靠的，但是它是为 rsyslog 创建的，而且很少有行业采用。它在应用层接收数据，如果有错误就会重发。请确认你的日志接受位置也支持这个协议。 + +### 用磁盘辅助队列可靠的传送 ### + +如果 rsyslog 在存储日志时遭遇错误，例如一个不可用网络连接，它能将日志排队直到连接还原。队列日志默认被存储在内存里。无论如何，内存是有限的并且如果问题仍然存在，日志会超出内存容量。 + +**警告：如果你只存储日志到内存，你可能会失去数据。** + +rsyslog 能在内存被占满时将日志队列放到磁盘。[磁盘辅助队列][14]使日志的传输更可靠。这里有一个例子如何配置rsyslog 的磁盘辅助队列： + + $WorkDirectory /var/spool/rsyslog # 暂存文件（spool）放置位置 + $ActionQueueFileName fwdRule1 # 暂存文件的唯一名字前缀 + $ActionQueueMaxDiskSpace 1g # 1gb 空间限制（尽可能大） + $ActionQueueSaveOnShutdown on # 关机时保存日志到磁盘 + $ActionQueueType LinkedList # 异步运行 + $ActionResumeRetryCount -1 # 如果主机宕机，不断重试 + +### 使用 TLS 加密日志 ### + +如果你担心你的数据的安全性和隐私性，你应该考虑加密你的日志。如果你使用纯文本在互联网传输日志，嗅探器和中间人可以读到你的日志。如果日志包含私人信息、敏感的身份数据或者政府管制数据，你应该加密你的日志。rsyslog 程序能使用 TLS 协议加密你的日志保证你的数据更安全。 + +建立 TLS 加密，你应该做如下任务： + +1. 生成一个[证书授权(CA)][15]。在 /contrib/gnutls 有一些证书例子，可以用来测试，但是你需要为产品环境创建自己的证书。如果你正在使用一个日志管理服务，它会给你一个证书。 +1. 为你的服务器生成一个[数字证书][16]使它能启用 SSL 操作，或者使用你自己的日志管理服务提供商的一个数字证书。 +1. 配置你的 rsyslog 程序来发送 TLS 加密数据到你的日志管理系统。 + +这有一个 rsyslog 配置 TLS 加密的例子。替换 CERT 和 DOMAIN_NAME 为你自己的服务器配置。 + + $DefaultNetstreamDriverCAFile /etc/rsyslog.d/keys/ca.d/CERT.crt + $ActionSendStreamDriver gtls + $ActionSendStreamDriverMode 1 + $ActionSendStreamDriverAuthMode x509/name + $ActionSendStreamDriverPermittedPeer *.DOMAIN_NAME.com + +### 应用日志的最佳管理方法 ### + +除 Linux 默认创建的日志之外，归集重要的应用日志也是一个好主意。几乎所有基于 Linux 的服务器应用都把它们的状态信息写入到独立、专门的日志文件中。这包括数据库产品，像 PostgreSQL 或者 MySQL，网站服务器，像 Nginx 或者 Apache，防火墙，打印和文件共享服务，目录和 DNS 服务等等。 + +管理员安装一个应用后要做的第一件事是配置它。Linux 应用程序典型的有一个放在 /etc 目录里 .conf 文件。它也可能在其它地方，但是那是大家找配置文件首先会看的地方。 + +根据应用程序有多复杂多庞大，可配置参数的数量可能会很少或者上百行。如前所述，大多数应用程序可能会在某种日志文件写它们的状态：配置文件是定义日志设置和其它东西的地方。 + +如果你不确定它在哪，你可以使用locate命令去找到它： + + [root@localhost ~]# locate postgresql.conf + /usr/pgsql-9.4/share/postgresql.conf.sample + /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/postgresql.conf + +#### 设置一个日志文件的标准位置 #### + +Linux 系统一般保存它们的日志文件在 /var/log 目录下。一般是这样，但是需要检查一下应用是否保存它们在 /var/log 下的特定目录。如果是，很好，如果不是，你也许想在 /var/log 下创建一个专用目录？为什么？因为其它程序也在 /var/log 下保存它们的日志文件，如果你的应用保存超过一个日志文件 - 也许每天一个或者每次重启一个 - 在这么大的目录也许有点难于搜索找到你想要的文件。 + +如果在你网络里你有运行多于一个的应用实例，这个方法依然便利。想想这样的情景，你也许有一打 web 服务器在你的网络运行。当排查任何一个机器的问题时，你就很容易知道确切的位置。 + +#### 使用一个标准的文件名 #### + +给你的应用最新的日志使用一个标准的文件名。这使一些事变得容易，因为你可以监控和追踪一个单独的文件。很多应用程序在它们的日志文件上追加一种时间戳。它让 rsyslog 更难于找到最新的文件和设置文件监控。一个更好的方法是使用日志轮转给老的日志文件增加时间。这样更易去归档和历史查询。 + +#### 追加日志文件 #### + +日志文件会在每个应用程序重启后被覆盖吗？如果这样，我们建议关掉它。每次重启 app 后应该去追加日志文件。这样，你就可以追溯重启前最后的日志。 + +#### 日志文件追加 vs. 轮转 #### + +要是应用程序每次重启后写一个新日志文件，如何保存当前日志？追加到一个单独的、巨大的文件？Linux 系统并不以频繁重启或者崩溃而出名：应用程序可以运行很长时间甚至不间歇，但是也会使日志文件非常大。如果你查询分析上周发生连接错误的原因，你可能无疑的要在成千上万行里搜索。 + +我们建议你配置应用每天半晚轮转（rotate）它的日志文件。 + +为什么？首先它将变得可管理。找一个带有特定日期的文件名比遍历一个文件中指定日期的条目更容易。文件也小的多：你不用考虑当你打开一个日志文件时 vi 僵住。第二，如果你正发送日志到另一个位置 - 也许每晚备份任务拷贝到归集日志服务器 - 这样不会消耗你的网络带宽。最后第三点，这样帮助你做日志保留。如果你想剔除旧的日志记录，这样删除超过指定日期的文件比用一个应用解析一个大文件更容易。 + +#### 日志文件的保留 #### + +你保留你的日志文件多长时间？这绝对可以归结为业务需求。你可能被要求保持一个星期的日志信息，或者管理要求保持一年的数据。无论如何，日志需要在一个时刻或其它情况下从服务器删除。 + +在我们看来，除非必要，只在线保持最近一个月的日志文件，并拷贝它们到第二个地方如日志服务器。任何比这更旧的日志可以被转到一个单独的介质上。例如，如果你在 AWS 上，你的旧日志可以被拷贝到 Glacier。 + +#### 给日志单独的磁盘分区 #### + +更好的，Linux 通常建议挂载到 /var 目录到一个单独的文件系统。这是因为这个目录的高 I/O。我们推荐挂载 /var/log 目录到一个单独的磁盘系统下。这样可以节省与主要的应用数据的 I/O 竞争。另外，如果一些日志文件变的太多，或者一个文件变的太大，不会占满整个磁盘。 + +#### 日志条目 #### + +每个日志条目中应该捕获什么信息？ + +这依赖于你想用日志来做什么。你只想用它来排除故障，或者你想捕获所有发生的事？这是一个捕获每个用户在运行什么或查看什么的规则条件吗？ + +如果你正用日志做错误排查的目的，那么只保存错误，报警或者致命信息。没有理由去捕获调试信息，例如，应用也许默认记录了调试信息或者另一个管理员也许为了故障排查而打开了调试信息，但是你应该关闭它，因为它肯定会很快的填满空间。在最低限度上，捕获日期、时间、客户端应用名、来源 ip 或者客户端主机名、执行的动作和信息本身。 + +#### 一个 PostgreSQL 的实例 #### + +作为一个例子，让我们看看 vanilla PostgreSQL 9.4 安装的主配置文件。它叫做 postgresql.conf，与其它Linux 系统中的配置文件不同，它不保存在 /etc 目录下。下列的代码段，我们可以在我们的 Centos 7 服务器的 /var/lib/pgsql 目录下找到它： + + root@localhost ~]# vi /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/postgresql.conf + ... + #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + # ERROR REPORTING AND LOGGING + #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + # - Where to Log - + log_destination = 'stderr' + # Valid values are combinations of + # stderr, csvlog, syslog, and eventlog, + # depending on platform. csvlog + # requires logging_collector to be on. + # This is used when logging to stderr: + logging_collector = on + # Enable capturing of stderr and csvlog + # into log files. Required to be on for + # csvlogs. + # (change requires restart) + # These are only used if logging_collector is on: + log_directory = 'pg_log' + # directory where log files are written, + # can be absolute or relative to PGDATA + log_filename = 'postgresql-%a.log' # log file name pattern, + # can include strftime() escapes + # log_file_mode = 0600 . + # creation mode for log files, + # begin with 0 to use octal notation + log_truncate_on_rotation = on # If on, an existing log file with the + # same name as the new log file will be + # truncated rather than appended to. + # But such truncation only occurs on + # time-driven rotation, not on restarts + # or size-driven rotation. Default is + # off, meaning append to existing files + # in all cases. + log_rotation_age = 1d + # Automatic rotation of logfiles will happen after that time. 0 disables. + log_rotation_size = 0 # Automatic rotation of logfiles will happen after that much log output. 0 disables. + # These are relevant when logging to syslog: + #syslog_facility = 'LOCAL0' + #syslog_ident = 'postgres' + # This is only relevant when logging to eventlog (win32): + #event_source = 'PostgreSQL' + # - When to Log - + #client_min_messages = notice # values in order of decreasing detail: + # debug5 + # debug4 + # debug3 + # debug2 + # debug1 + # log + # notice + # warning + # error + #log_min_messages = warning # values in order of decreasing detail: + # debug5 + # debug4 + # debug3 + # debug2 + # debug1 + # info + # notice + # warning + # error + # log + # fatal + # panic + #log_min_error_statement = error # values in order of decreasing detail: + # debug5 + # debug4 + # debug3 + # debug2 + # debug1 + # info + # notice + # warning + # error + # log + # fatal + # panic (effectively off) + #log_min_duration_statement = -1 # -1 is disabled, 0 logs all statements + # and their durations, > 0 logs only + # statements running at least this number + # of milliseconds + # - What to Log + #debug_print_parse = off + #debug_print_rewritten = off + #debug_print_plan = off + #debug_pretty_print = on + #log_checkpoints = off + #log_connections = off + #log_disconnections = off + #log_duration = off + #log_error_verbosity = default + # terse, default, or verbose messages + #log_hostname = off + log_line_prefix = '< %m >' # special values: + # %a = application name + # %u = user name + # %d = database name + # %r = remote host and port + # %h = remote host + # %p = process ID + # %t = timestamp without milliseconds + # %m = timestamp with milliseconds + # %i = command tag + # %e = SQL state + # %c = session ID + # %l = session line number + # %s = session start timestamp + # %v = virtual transaction ID + # %x = transaction ID (0 if none) + # %q = stop here in non-session + # processes + # %% = '%' + # e.g. '<%u%%%d> ' + #log_lock_waits = off # log lock waits >= deadlock_timeout + #log_statement = 'none' # none, ddl, mod, all + #log_temp_files = -1 # log temporary files equal or larger + # than the specified size in kilobytes;5# -1 disables, 0 logs all temp files5 + log_timezone = 'Australia/ACT' + +虽然大多数参数被加上了注释，它们使用了默认值。我们可以看见日志文件目录是 pg_log（log_directory 参数，在 /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/ 下的子目录），文件名应该以 postgresql 开头（log_filename参数），文件每天轮转一次（log_rotation_age 参数）然后每行日志记录以时间戳开头（log_line_prefix参数）。特别值得说明的是 log_line_prefix 参数：全部的信息你都可以包含在这。 + +看 /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/pg_log 目录下展现给我们这些文件： + + [root@localhost ~]# ls -l /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/pg_log + total 20 + -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 1212 May 1 20:11 postgresql-Fri.log + -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 243 Feb 9 21:49 postgresql-Mon.log + -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 1138 Feb 7 11:08 postgresql-Sat.log + -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 1203 Feb 26 21:32 postgresql-Thu.log + -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 326 Feb 10 01:20 postgresql-Tue.log + +所以日志文件名只有星期命名的标签。我们可以改变它。如何做？在 postgresql.conf 配置 log_filename 参数。 + +查看一个日志内容，它的条目仅以日期时间开头： + + [root@localhost ~]# cat /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/pg_log/postgresql-Fri.log + ... + < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.020 EST >LOG: received fast shutdown request + < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.025 EST >LOG: aborting any active transactions + < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.026 EST >LOG: autovacuum launcher shutting down + < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.036 EST >LOG: shutting down + < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.211 EST >LOG: database system is shut down + +### 归集应用的日志 ### + +#### 使用 imfile 监控日志 #### + +习惯上，应用通常记录它们数据在文件里。文件容易在一个机器上寻找，但是多台服务器上就不是很恰当了。你可以设置日志文件监控，然后当新的日志被添加到文件尾部后就发送事件到一个集中服务器。在 /etc/rsyslog.d/ 里创建一个新的配置文件然后增加一个配置文件，然后输入如下： + + $ModLoad imfile + $InputFilePollInterval 10 + $PrivDropToGroup adm + +----- + # Input for FILE1 + $InputFileName /FILE1 + $InputFileTag APPNAME1 + $InputFileStateFile stat-APPNAME1 #this must be unique for each file being polled + $InputFileSeverity info + $InputFilePersistStateInterval 20000 + $InputRunFileMonitor + +替换 FILE1 和 APPNAME1 为你自己的文件名和应用名称。rsyslog 将发送它到你配置的输出目标中。 + +#### 本地套接字日志与 imuxsock #### + +套接字类似 UNIX 文件句柄，所不同的是套接字内容是由 syslog 守护进程读取到内存中，然后发送到目的地。不需要写入文件。作为一个例子，logger 命令发送它的日志到这个 UNIX 套接字。 + +如果你的服务器 I/O 有限或者你不需要本地文件日志，这个方法可以使系统资源有效利用。这个方法缺点是套接字有队列大小的限制。如果你的 syslog 守护进程宕掉或者不能保持运行，然后你可能会丢失日志数据。 + +rsyslog 程序将默认从 /dev/log 套接字中读取，但是你需要使用如下命令来让 [imuxsock 输入模块][17] 启用它： + + $ModLoad imuxsock + +#### UDP 日志与 imupd #### + +一些应用程序使用 UDP 格式输出日志数据，这是在网络上或者本地传输日志文件的标准 syslog 协议。你的 syslog 守护进程接受这些日志，然后处理它们或者用不同的格式传输它们。备选的，你可以发送日志到你的日志服务器或者到一个日志管理方案中。 + +使用如下命令配置 rsyslog 通过 UDP 来接收标准端口 514 的 syslog 数据： + + $ModLoad imudp + +---------- + + $UDPServerRun 514 + +### 用 logrotate 管理日志 ### + +日志轮转是当日志到达指定的时期时自动归档日志文件的方法。如果不介入，日志文件一直增长，会用尽磁盘空间。最后它们将破坏你的机器。 + +logrotate 工具能随着日志的日期截取你的日志，腾出空间。你的新日志文件保持该文件名。你的旧日志文件被重命名加上后缀数字。每次 logrotate 工具运行，就会创建一个新文件，然后现存的文件被逐一重命名。你来决定何时旧文件被删除或归档的阈值。 + +当 logrotate 拷贝一个文件，新的文件会有一个新的 inode，这会妨碍 rsyslog 监控新文件。你可以通过增加copytruncate 参数到你的 logrotate 定时任务来缓解这个问题。这个参数会拷贝现有的日志文件内容到新文件然后从现有文件截短这些内容。因为日志文件还是同一个，所以 inode 不会改变；但它的内容是一个新文件。 + +logrotate 工具使用的主配置文件是 /etc/logrotate.conf，应用特有设置在 /etc/logrotate.d/ 目录下。DigitalOcean 有一个详细的 [logrotate 教程][18] + +### 管理很多服务器的配置 ### + +当你只有很少的服务器，你可以登录上去手动配置。一旦你有几打或者更多服务器，你可以利用工具的优势使这变得更容易和更可扩展。基本上，所有的事情就是拷贝你的 rsyslog 配置到每个服务器，然后重启 rsyslog 使更改生效。 + +#### pssh #### + +这个工具可以让你在很多服务器上并行的运行一个 ssh 命令。使用 pssh 部署仅用于少量服务器。如果你其中一个服务器失败，然后你必须 ssh 到失败的服务器，然后手动部署。如果你有很多服务器失败，那么手动部署它们会话费很长时间。 + +#### Puppet/Chef #### + +Puppet 和 Chef 是两个不同的工具，它们能在你的网络按你规定的标准自动的配置所有服务器。它们的报表工具可以使你了解错误情况，然后定期重新同步。Puppet 和 Chef 都有一些狂热的支持者。如果你不确定那个更适合你的部署配置管理，你可以拜读一下 [InfoWorld 上这两个工具的对比][19] + +一些厂商也提供一些配置 rsyslog 的模块或者方法。这有一个 Loggly 上 Puppet 模块的例子。它提供给 rsyslog 一个类，你可以添加一个标识令牌： + + node 'my_server_node.example.net' { + # Send syslog events to Loggly + class { 'loggly::rsyslog': + customer_token => 'de7b5ccd-04de-4dc4-fbc9-501393600000', + } + } + +#### Docker #### + +Docker 使用容器去运行应用，不依赖于底层服务。所有东西都运行在内部的容器，你可以把它想象为一个功能单元。ZDNet 有一篇关于在你的数据中心[使用 Docker][20] 的深入文章。 + +这里有很多方式从 Docker 容器记录日志，包括链接到一个日志容器，记录到一个共享卷，或者直接在容器里添加一个 sysllog 代理。其中最流行的日志容器叫做 [logspout][21]。 + +#### 供应商的脚本或代理 #### + +大多数日志管理方案提供一些脚本或者代理，可以从一个或更多服务器相对容易地发送数据。重量级代理会耗尽额外的系统资源。一些供应商像 Loggly 提供配置脚本，来使用现存的 syslog 守护进程更轻松。这有一个 Loggly 上的例子[脚本][22]，它能运行在任意数量的服务器上。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.loggly.com/ultimate-guide/logging/managing-linux-logs/ + +作者：[Jason Skowronski][a1] +作者：[Amy Echeverri][a2] +作者：[Sadequl Hussain][a3] +译者：[wyangsun](https://github.com/wyangsun) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a1]:https://www.linkedin.com/in/jasonskowronski +[a2]:https://www.linkedin.com/in/amyecheverri +[a3]:https://www.linkedin.com/pub/sadequl-hussain/14/711/1a7 +[1]:https://docs.google.com/document/d/11LXZxWlkNSHkcrCWTUdnLRf_CiZz9kK0cr3yGM_BU_0/edit#heading=h.esrreycnpnbl +[2]:http://www.rsyslog.com/ +[3]:http://www.balabit.com/network-security/syslog-ng/opensource-logging-system +[4]:http://logstash.net/ +[5]:http://www.fluentd.org/ +[6]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/rsyslog_conf.html +[7]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/master/rainerscript/index.html +[8]:https://docs.google.com/document/d/11LXZxWlkNSHkcrCWTUdnLRf_CiZz9kK0cr3yGM_BU_0/edit#heading=h.eck7acdxin87 +[9]:https://www.loggly.com/docs/file-monitoring/ +[10]:http://www.networksorcery.com/enp/protocol/udp.htm +[11]:http://www.networksorcery.com/enp/protocol/tcp.htm +[12]:http://blog.gerhards.net/2008/04/on-unreliability-of-plain-tcp-syslog.html +[13]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/relp.html +[14]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/queues.html +[15]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/tls_cert_ca.html +[16]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/tls_cert_machine.html +[17]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/v8-stable/configuration/modules/imuxsock.html +[18]:https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/how-to-manage-log-files-with-logrotate-on-ubuntu-12-10 +[19]:http://www.infoworld.com/article/2614204/data-center/puppet-or-chef--the-configuration-management-dilemma.html +[20]:http://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-docker-and-why-is-it-so-darn-popular/ +[21]:https://github.com/progrium/logspout +[22]:https://www.loggly.com/docs/sending-logs-unixlinux-system-setup/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to enable logging in Open vSwitch for debugging and troubleshooting.md b/published/201509/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to enable logging in Open vSwitch for debugging and troubleshooting.md similarity index 71% rename from translated/tech/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to enable logging in Open vSwitch for debugging and troubleshooting.md rename to published/201509/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to enable logging in Open vSwitch for debugging and troubleshooting.md index 542cf31cb3..f5afec9a88 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to enable logging in Open vSwitch for debugging and troubleshooting.md +++ b/published/201509/20150806 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to enable logging in Open vSwitch for debugging and troubleshooting.md @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ -Linux有问必答——如何启用Open vSwitch的日志功能以便调试和排障 +Linux有问必答：如何启用Open vSwitch的日志功能以便调试和排障 ================================================================================ > **问题** 我试着为我的Open vSwitch部署排障，鉴于此，我想要检查它的由内建日志机制生成的调试信息。我怎样才能启用Open vSwitch的日志功能，并且修改它的日志等级（如，修改成INFO/DEBUG级别）以便于检查更多详细的调试信息呢？ -Open vSwitch（OVS)是Linux平台上用于虚拟切换的最流行的开源部署。由于当今的数据中心日益依赖于软件定义的网络（SDN）架构，OVS被作为数据中心的SDN部署中实际上的标准网络元素而快速采用。 +Open vSwitch（OVS)是Linux平台上最流行的开源的虚拟交换机。由于当今的数据中心日益依赖于软件定义网络（SDN）架构，OVS被作为数据中心的SDN部署中的事实标准上的网络元素而得到飞速应用。 -Open vSwitch具有一个内建的日志机制，它称之为VLOG。VLOG工具允许你在各种切换组件中启用并自定义日志，由VLOG生成的日志信息可以被发送到一个控制台，syslog以及一个独立日志文件组合，以供检查。你可以通过一个名为`ovs-appctl`的命令行工具在运行时动态配置OVS日志。 +Open vSwitch具有一个内建的日志机制，它称之为VLOG。VLOG工具允许你在各种网络交换组件中启用并自定义日志，由VLOG生成的日志信息可以被发送到一个控制台、syslog以及一个便于查看的单独日志文件。你可以通过一个名为`ovs-appctl`的命令行工具在运行时动态配置OVS日志。 ![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/499/19300367114_cd8aac2fb2_c.jpg) @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ Open vSwitch具有一个内建的日志机制，它称之为VLOG。VLOG工具允 $ sudo ovs-appctl vlog/set module[:facility[:level]] -- **Module**：OVS中的任何合法组件的名称（如netdev，ofproto，dpif，vswitchd，以及其它大量组件） +- **Module**：OVS中的任何合法组件的名称（如netdev，ofproto，dpif，vswitchd等等） - **Facility**：日志信息的目的地（必须是：console，syslog，或者file） - **Level**：日志的详细程度（必须是：emer，err，warn，info，或者dbg） @@ -36,13 +36,13 @@ Open vSwitch具有一个内建的日志机制，它称之为VLOG。VLOG工具允 ![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/465/19734939478_7eb5d44635_c.jpg) -输出结果显示了用于三个工具（console，syslog，file）的各个模块的调试级别。默认情况下，所有模块的日志等级都被设置为INFO。 +输出结果显示了用于三个场合（facility：console，syslog，file）的各个模块的调试级别。默认情况下，所有模块的日志等级都被设置为INFO。 -指定任何一个OVS模块，你可以选择性地修改任何特定工具的调试级别。例如，如果你想要在控制台屏幕中查看dpif更为详细的调试信息，可以运行以下命令。 +指定任何一个OVS模块，你可以选择性地修改任何特定场合的调试级别。例如，如果你想要在控制台屏幕中查看dpif更为详细的调试信息，可以运行以下命令。 $ sudo ovs-appctl vlog/set dpif:console:dbg -你将看到dpif模块的console工具已经将其日志等级修改为DBG，而其它两个工具syslog和file的日志级别仍然没有改变。 +你将看到dpif模块的console工具已经将其日志等级修改为DBG，而其它两个场合syslog和file的日志级别仍然没有改变。 ![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/333/19896760146_5d851311ae_c.jpg) @@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ Open vSwitch具有一个内建的日志机制，它称之为VLOG。VLOG工具允 ![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/351/19734939828_8c7f59e404_c.jpg) -同时，如果你想要一次性修改所有三个工具的日志级别，你可以指定“ANY”作为工具名。例如，下面的命令将修改每个模块的所有工具的日志级别为DBG。 +同时，如果你想要一次性修改所有三个场合的日志级别，你可以指定“ANY”作为场合名。例如，下面的命令将修改每个模块的所有场合的日志级别为DBG。 $ sudo ovs-appctl vlog/set ANY:ANY:dbg @@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ via: http://ask.xmodulo.com/enable-logging-open-vswitch.html 作者：[Dan Nanni][a] 译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/20150811 How to Install Snort and Usage in Ubuntu 15.04.md b/published/201509/20150811 How to Install Snort and Usage in Ubuntu 15.04.md similarity index 77% rename from translated/tech/20150811 How to Install Snort and Usage in Ubuntu 15.04.md rename to published/201509/20150811 How to Install Snort and Usage in Ubuntu 15.04.md index 06fbfd62b8..01d7f7ec13 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150811 How to Install Snort and Usage in Ubuntu 15.04.md +++ b/published/201509/20150811 How to Install Snort and Usage in Ubuntu 15.04.md @@ -1,12 +1,13 @@ -在Ubuntu 15.04中如何安装和使用Snort +在 Ubuntu 15.04 中如何安装和使用 Snort ================================================================================ -对于IT安全而言入侵检测是一件非常重要的事。入侵检测系统用于检测网络中非法与恶意的请求。Snort是一款知名的开源入侵检测系统。Web界面（Snorby）可以用于更好地分析警告。Snort使用iptables/pf防火墙来作为入侵检测系统。本篇中，我们会安装并配置一个开源的IDS系统snort。 + +对于网络安全而言入侵检测是一件非常重要的事。入侵检测系统（IDS）用于检测网络中非法与恶意的请求。Snort是一款知名的开源的入侵检测系统。其 Web界面（Snorby）可以用于更好地分析警告。Snort使用iptables/pf防火墙来作为入侵检测系统。本篇中，我们会安装并配置一个开源的入侵检测系统snort。 ### Snort 安装 ### #### 要求 #### -snort所使用的数据采集库（DAQ）用于抽象地调用采集库。这个在snort上就有。下载过程如下截图所示。 +snort所使用的数据采集库（DAQ）用于一个调用包捕获库的抽象层。这个在snort上就有。下载过程如下截图所示。 ![downloading_daq](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/downloading_daq.png) @@ -48,7 +49,7 @@ make和make install 命令的结果如下所示。 ![snort_extraction](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/snort_extraction.png) -创建安装目录并在脚本中设置prefix参数。同样也建议启用包性能监控（PPM）标志。 +创建安装目录并在脚本中设置prefix参数。同样也建议启用包性能监控（PPM）的sourcefire标志。 #mkdir /usr/local/snort @@ -56,7 +57,7 @@ make和make install 命令的结果如下所示。 ![snort_installation](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/snort_installation.png) -配置脚本由于缺少libpcre-dev、libdumbnet-dev 和zlib开发库而报错。 +配置脚本会由于缺少libpcre-dev、libdumbnet-dev 和zlib开发库而报错。 配置脚本由于缺少libpcre库报错。 @@ -96,7 +97,7 @@ make和make install 命令的结果如下所示。 ![make install snort](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/make-install-snort.png) -最终snort在/usr/local/snort/bin中运行。现在它对eth0的所有流量都处在promisc模式（包转储模式）。 +最后，从/usr/local/snort/bin中运行snort。现在它对eth0的所有流量都处在promisc模式（包转储模式）。 ![snort running](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/snort-running.png) @@ -106,14 +107,17 @@ make和make install 命令的结果如下所示。 #### Snort的规则和配置 #### -从源码安装的snort需要规则和安装配置，因此我们会从/etc/snort下面复制规则和配置。我们已经创建了单独的bash脚本来用于规则和配置。它会设置下面这些snort设置。 +从源码安装的snort还需要设置规则和配置，因此我们需要复制规则和配置到/etc/snort下面。我们已经创建了单独的bash脚本来用于设置规则和配置。它会设置下面这些snort设置。 -- 在linux中创建snort用户用于snort IDS服务。 +- 在linux中创建用于snort IDS服务的snort用户。 - 在/etc下面创建snort的配置文件和文件夹。 -- 权限设置并从etc中复制snortsnort源代码 +- 权限设置并从源代码的etc目录中复制数据。 - 从snort文件中移除规则中的#(注释符号)。 - #!/bin/bash##PATH of source code of snort +- + + #!/bin/bash# + # snort源代码的路径 snort_src="/home/test/Downloads/snort-2.9.7.3" echo "adding group and user for snort..." groupadd snort &> /dev/null @@ -141,15 +145,15 @@ make和make install 命令的结果如下所示。 sed -i 's/include \$RULE\_PATH/#include \$RULE\_PATH/' /etc/snort/snort.conf echo "---DONE---" -改变脚本中的snort源目录并运行。下面是成功的输出。 +改变脚本中的snort源目录路径并运行。下面是成功的输出。 ![running script](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/running_script.png) -上面的脚本从snort源中复制下面的文件/文件夹到/etc/snort配置文件中 +上面的脚本从snort源中复制下面的文件和文件夹到/etc/snort配置文件中 ![files copied](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/created.png) -、snort的配置非常复杂，然而为了IDS能正常工作需要进行下面必要的修改。 +snort的配置非常复杂，要让IDS能正常工作需要进行下面必要的修改。 ipvar HOME_NET 192.168.1.0/24 # LAN side @@ -173,7 +177,7 @@ make和make install 命令的结果如下所示。 ![path rules](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/path-rules.png) -下载[下载社区][1]规则并解压到/etc/snort/rules。启用snort.conf中的社区及紧急威胁规则。 +现在[下载社区规则][1]并解压到/etc/snort/rules。启用snort.conf中的社区及紧急威胁规则。 ![wget_rules](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/wget_rules.png) @@ -187,7 +191,7 @@ make和make install 命令的结果如下所示。 ### 总结 ### -本篇中，我们致力于开源IDPS系统snort在Ubuntu上的安装和配置。默认它用于监控时间，然而它可以被配置成用于网络保护的内联模式。snort规则可以在离线模式中可以使用pcap文件测试和分析 +本篇中，我们关注了开源IDPS系统snort在Ubuntu上的安装和配置。通常它用于监控事件，然而它可以被配置成用于网络保护的在线模式。snort规则可以在离线模式中可以使用pcap捕获文件进行测试和分析 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -195,7 +199,7 @@ via: http://linoxide.com/security/install-snort-usage-ubuntu-15-04/ 作者：[nido][a] 译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/20150811 fdupes--A Comamndline Tool to Find and Delete Duplicate Files in Linux.md b/published/201509/20150811 fdupes--A Comamndline Tool to Find and Delete Duplicate Files in Linux.md similarity index 80% rename from translated/tech/20150811 fdupes--A Comamndline Tool to Find and Delete Duplicate Files in Linux.md rename to published/201509/20150811 fdupes--A Comamndline Tool to Find and Delete Duplicate Files in Linux.md index 09f10fb546..76a06ea37c 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150811 fdupes--A Comamndline Tool to Find and Delete Duplicate Files in Linux.md +++ b/published/201509/20150811 fdupes--A Comamndline Tool to Find and Delete Duplicate Files in Linux.md @@ -1,16 +1,16 @@ -fdupes——Linux中查找并删除重复文件的命令行工具 +fdupes：Linux中查找并删除重复文件的命令行工具 ================================================================================ -对于大多数计算机用户而言，查找并替换重复的文件是一个常见的需求。查找并移除重复文件真是一项领人不胜其烦的工作，它耗时又耗力。如果你的机器上跑着GNU/Linux，那么查找重复文件会变得十分简单，这多亏了`**fdupes**`工具。 +对于大多数计算机用户而言，查找并替换重复的文件是一个常见的需求。查找并移除重复文件真是一项令人不胜其烦的工作，它耗时又耗力。但如果你的机器上跑着GNU/Linux，那么查找重复文件会变得十分简单，这多亏了`fdupes`工具。 ![Find and Delete Duplicate Files in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/find-and-delete-duplicate-files-in-linux.png) -Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 +*fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件* ### fdupes是啥东东？ ### -**Fdupes**是Linux下的一个工具，它由**Adrian Lopez**用C编程语言编写并基于MIT许可证发行，该应用程序可以在指定的目录及子目录中查找重复的文件。Fdupes通过对比文件的MD5签名，以及逐字节比较文件来识别重复内容，可以为Fdupes指定大量的选项以实现对文件的列出、删除、替换到文件副本的硬链接等操作。 +**fdupes**是Linux下的一个工具，它由**Adrian Lopez**用C编程语言编写并基于MIT许可证发行，该应用程序可以在指定的目录及子目录中查找重复的文件。fdupes通过对比文件的MD5签名，以及逐字节比较文件来识别重复内容，fdupes有各种选项，可以实现对文件的列出、删除、替换为文件副本的硬链接等操作。 -对比以下列顺序开始： +文件对比以下列顺序开始： **大小对比 > 部分 MD5 签名对比 > 完整 MD5 签名对比 > 逐字节对比** @@ -27,8 +27,9 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 **注意**：自Fedora 22之后，默认的包管理器yum被dnf取代了。 -### fdupes命令咋个搞？ ### -1.作为演示的目的，让我们来在某个目录（比如 tecmint）下创建一些重复文件，命令如下： +### fdupes命令如何使用 ### + +1、 作为演示的目的，让我们来在某个目录（比如 tecmint）下创建一些重复文件，命令如下： $ mkdir /home/"$USER"/Desktop/tecmint && cd /home/"$USER"/Desktop/tecmint && for i in {1..15}; do echo "I Love Tecmint. Tecmint is a very nice community of Linux Users." > tecmint${i}.txt ; done @@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 "I Love Tecmint. Tecmint is a very nice community of Linux Users." -2.现在在**tecmint**文件夹内搜索重复的文件。 +2、 现在在**tecmint**文件夹内搜索重复的文件。 $ fdupes /home/$USER/Desktop/tecmint @@ -77,7 +78,7 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint/tecmint15.txt /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint/tecmint12.txt -3.使用**-r**选项在每个目录包括其子目录中递归搜索重复文件。 +3、 使用**-r**选项在每个目录包括其子目录中递归搜索重复文件。 它会递归搜索所有文件和文件夹，花一点时间来扫描重复文件，时间的长短取决于文件和文件夹的数量。在此其间，终端中会显示全部过程，像下面这样。 @@ -85,7 +86,7 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 Progress [37780/54747] 69% -4.使用**-S**选项来查看某个文件夹内找到的重复文件的大小。 +4、 使用**-S**选项来查看某个文件夹内找到的重复文件的大小。 $ fdupes -S /home/$USER/Desktop/tecmint @@ -106,7 +107,7 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint/tecmint15.txt /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint/tecmint12.txt -5.你可以同时使用**-S**和**-r**选项来查看所有涉及到的目录和子目录中的重复文件的大小，如下： +5、 你可以同时使用**-S**和**-r**选项来查看所有涉及到的目录和子目录中的重复文件的大小，如下： $ fdupes -Sr /home/avi/Desktop/ @@ -131,11 +132,11 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 /home/tecmint/Desktop/resume_files/r-csc.html /home/tecmint/Desktop/resume_files/fc.html -6.不同于在一个或所有文件夹内递归搜索，你可以选择按要求有选择性地在两个或三个文件夹内进行搜索。不必再提醒你了吧，如有需要，你可以使用**-S**和/或**-r**选项。 +6、 不同于在一个或所有文件夹内递归搜索，你可以选择按要求有选择性地在两个或三个文件夹内进行搜索。不必再提醒你了吧，如有需要，你可以使用**-S**和/或**-r**选项。 $ fdupes /home/avi/Desktop/ /home/avi/Templates/ -7.要删除重复文件，同时保留一个副本，你可以使用`**-d**`选项。使用该选项，你必须额外小心，否则最终结果可能会是文件/数据的丢失。郑重提醒，此操作不可恢复。 +7、 要删除重复文件，同时保留一个副本，你可以使用`-d`选项。使用该选项，你必须额外小心，否则最终结果可能会是文件/数据的丢失。郑重提醒，此操作不可恢复。 $ fdupes -d /home/$USER/Desktop/tecmint @@ -177,13 +178,13 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 [-] /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint/tecmint15.txt [-] /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint/tecmint12.txt -8.从安全角度出发，你可能想要打印`**fdupes**`的输出结果到文件中，然后检查文本文件来决定要删除什么文件。这可以降低意外删除文件的风险。你可以这么做： +8、 从安全角度出发，你可能想要打印`fdupes`的输出结果到文件中，然后检查文本文件来决定要删除什么文件。这可以降低意外删除文件的风险。你可以这么做： $ fdupes -Sr /home > /home/fdupes.txt -**注意**：你可以替换`**/home**`为你想要的文件夹。同时，如果你想要递归搜索并打印大小，可以使用`**-r**`和`**-S**`选项。 +**注意**：你应该替换`/home`为你想要的文件夹。同时，如果你想要递归搜索并打印大小，可以使用`-r`和`-S`选项。 -9.你可以使用`**-f**`选项来忽略每个匹配集中的首个文件。 +9、 你可以使用`-f`选项来忽略每个匹配集中的首个文件。 首先列出该目录中的文件。 @@ -205,13 +206,13 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint9 (another copy).txt /home/tecmint/Desktop/tecmint9 (4th copy).txt -10.检查已安装的fdupes版本。 +10、 检查已安装的fdupes版本。 $ fdupes --version fdupes 1.51 -11.如果你需要关于fdupes的帮助，可以使用`**-h**`开关。 +11、 如果你需要关于fdupes的帮助，可以使用`-h`开关。 $ fdupes -h @@ -245,7 +246,7 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 -v --version display fdupes version -h --help display this help message -到此为止了。让我知道你到现在为止你是怎么在Linux中查找并删除重复文件的？同时，也让我知道你关于这个工具的看法。在下面的评论部分中提供你有价值的反馈吧，别忘了为我们点赞并分享，帮助我们扩散哦。 +到此为止了。让我知道你以前怎么在Linux中查找并删除重复文件的吧？同时，也让我知道你关于这个工具的看法。在下面的评论部分中提供你有价值的反馈吧，别忘了为我们点赞并分享，帮助我们扩散哦。 我正在使用另外一个移除重复文件的工具，它叫**fslint**。很快就会把使用心得分享给大家哦，你们一定会喜欢看的。 @@ -254,10 +255,10 @@ Fdupes——在Linux中查找并删除重复文件 via: http://www.tecmint.com/fdupes-find-and-delete-duplicate-files-in-linux/ 作者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 [a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/how-to-enable-epel-repository-for-rhel-centos-6-5/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/15-basic-ls-command-examples-in-linux/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-2324-1.html +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-5109-1.html diff --git a/translated/tech/20150812 Linux Tricks--Play Game in Chrome Text-to-Speech Schedule a Job and Watch Commands in Linux.md b/published/201509/20150812 Linux Tricks--Play Game in Chrome Text-to-Speech Schedule a Job and Watch Commands in Linux.md similarity index 74% rename from translated/tech/20150812 Linux Tricks--Play Game in Chrome Text-to-Speech Schedule a Job and Watch Commands in Linux.md rename to published/201509/20150812 Linux Tricks--Play Game in Chrome Text-to-Speech Schedule a Job and Watch Commands in Linux.md index 54d3996e0e..80e90df7fb 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150812 Linux Tricks--Play Game in Chrome Text-to-Speech Schedule a Job and Watch Commands in Linux.md +++ b/published/201509/20150812 Linux Tricks--Play Game in Chrome Text-to-Speech Schedule a Job and Watch Commands in Linux.md @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ -Linux小技巧：Chrome小游戏，文字说话，计划作业，重复执行命令 +Linux 小技巧：Chrome 小游戏，让文字说话，计划作业，重复执行命令 ================================================================================ 重要的事情说两遍，我完成了一个[Linux提示与彩蛋][1]系列，让你的Linux获得更多创造和娱乐。 ![Linux提示与彩蛋系列](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Linux-Tips-and-Tricks.png) -Linux提示与彩蛋系列 +*Linux提示与彩蛋系列* 本文，我将会讲解Google-chrome内建小游戏，在终端中如何让文字说话，使用‘at’命令设置作业和使用watch命令重复执行命令。 @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Linux提示与彩蛋系列 ![不能连接到互联网](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Unable-to-Connect-Internet.png) -不能连接到互联网 +*不能连接到互联网* 按下空格键来激活Google-chrome彩蛋游戏。游戏没有时间限制。并且还不需要浪费时间安装使用。 @@ -27,27 +27,25 @@ Linux提示与彩蛋系列 ![Google Chrome中玩游戏](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Play-Game-in-Google-Chrome.gif) -Google Chrome中玩游戏 +*Google Chrome中玩游戏* ### 2. Linux 终端中朗读文字 ### -对于那些不能文字朗读的设备，有个小工具可以实现文字说话的转换器。 -espeak支持多种语言，可以及时朗读输入文字。 +对于那些不能文字朗读的设备，有个小工具可以实现文字说话的转换器。用各种语言写一些东西，espeak就可以朗读给你。 系统应该默认安装了Espeak，如果你的系统没有安装，你可以使用下列命令来安装： # apt-get install espeak (Debian) # yum install espeak (CentOS) - # dnf install espeak (Fedora 22 onwards) + # dnf install espeak (Fedora 22 及其以后) -You may ask espeak to accept Input Interactively from standard Input device and convert it to speech for you. You may do: -你可以设置接受从标准输入的交互地输入并及时转换成语音朗读出来。这样设置： +你可以让espeak接受标准输入的交互输入并及时转换成语音朗读出来。如下： $ espeak [按回车键] 更详细的输出你可以这样做： - $ espeak --stdout | aplay [按回车键][这里需要双击] + $ espeak --stdout | aplay [按回车键][再次回车] espeak设置灵活，也可以朗读文本文件。你可以这样设置： @@ -55,29 +53,29 @@ espeak设置灵活，也可以朗读文本文件。你可以这样设置： espeak可以设置朗读速度。默认速度是160词每分钟。使用-s参数来设置。 -设置30词每分钟： +设置每分钟30词的语速： $ espeak -s 30 -f /path/to/text/file/file_name.txt | aplay -设置200词每分钟： +设置每分钟200词的语速： $ espeak -s 200 -f /path/to/text/file/file_name.txt | aplay -让其他语言说北印度语（作者母语），这样设置： +说其他语言，比如北印度语（作者母语），这样设置： $ espeak -v hindi --stdout 'टेकमिंट विश्व की एक बेहतरीन लाइंक्स आधारित वेबसाइट है|' | aplay -espeak支持多种语言，支持自定义设置。使用下列命令来获得语言表： +你可以使用各种语言，让espeak如上面说的以你选择的语言朗读。使用下列命令来获得语言列表： $ espeak --voices -### 3. 快速计划作业 ### +### 3. 快速调度任务 ### -我们已经非常熟悉使用[cron][2]后台执行一个计划命令。 +我们已经非常熟悉使用[cron][2]守护进程执行一个计划命令。 Cron是一个Linux系统管理的高级命令，用于计划定时任务如备份或者指定时间或间隔的任何事情。 -但是，你是否知道at命令可以让你计划一个作业或者命令在指定时间？at命令可以指定时间和指定内容执行作业。 +但是，你是否知道at命令可以让你在指定时间调度一个任务或者命令？at命令可以指定时间执行指定内容。 例如，你打算在早上11点2分执行uptime命令，你只需要这样做： @@ -85,17 +83,17 @@ Cron是一个Linux系统管理的高级命令，用于计划定时任务如备 uptime >> /home/$USER/uptime.txt Ctrl+D -![Linux中计划作业](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Schedule-Job-in-Linux.png) +![Linux中计划任务](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Schedule-Job-in-Linux.png) -Linux中计划作业 +*Linux中计划任务* 检查at命令是否成功设置，使用： $ at -l -![浏览计划作业](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/View-Scheduled-Jobs.png) +![浏览计划任务](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/View-Scheduled-Jobs.png) -浏览计划作业 +*浏览计划任务* at支持计划多个命令，例如： @@ -117,17 +115,17 @@ at支持计划多个命令，例如： ![Linux中查看日期和时间](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Check-Date-in-Linux.png) -Linux中查看日期和时间 +*Linux中查看日期和时间* -为了查看这个命令每三秒的输出，我需要运行下列命令： +为了每三秒查看一下这个命令的输出，我需要运行下列命令： $ watch -n 3 'date +"%H:%M:%S"' ![Linux中watch命令](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Watch-Command-in-Linux.gif) -Linux中watch命令 +*Linux中watch命令* -watch命令的‘-n’开关设定时间间隔。在上诉命令中，我们定义了时间间隔为3秒。你可以按你的需求定义。同样watch +watch命令的‘-n’开关设定时间间隔。在上述命令中，我们定义了时间间隔为3秒。你可以按你的需求定义。同样watch 也支持其他命令或者脚本。 至此。希望你喜欢这个系列的文章，让你的linux更有创造性，获得更多快乐。所有的建议欢迎评论。欢迎你也看看其他文章，谢谢。 @@ -138,7 +136,7 @@ via: http://www.tecmint.com/text-to-speech-in-terminal-schedule-a-job-and-watch- 作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] 译者：[VicYu/Vic020](http://vicyu.net) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201509/20150813 Howto Run JBoss Data Virtualization GA with OData in Docker Container.md b/published/201509/20150813 Howto Run JBoss Data Virtualization GA with OData in Docker Container.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6564e13924 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150813 Howto Run JBoss Data Virtualization GA with OData in Docker Container.md @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +如何在 Docker 容器中运行支持 OData 的 JBoss 数据虚拟化 GA +================================================================================ + +大家好，我们今天来学习如何在一个 Docker 容器中运行支持 OData（译者注：Open Data Protocol，开放数据协议） 的 JBoss 数据虚拟化 6.0.0 GA（译者注：GA，General Availability，具体定义可以查看[WIKI][4]）。JBoss 数据虚拟化是数据提供和集成解决方案平台，将多种分散的数据源转换为一种数据源统一对待，在正确的时间将所需数据传递给任意的应用或者用户。JBoss 数据虚拟化可以帮助我们将数据快速组合和转换为可重用的商业友好的数据模型，通过开放标准接口简单可用。它提供全面的数据抽取、联合、集成、转换，以及传输功能，将来自一个或多个源的数据组合为可重复使用和共享的灵活数据。要了解更多关于 JBoss 数据虚拟化的信息，可以查看它的[官方文档][1]。Docker 是一个提供开放平台用于打包，装载和以轻量级容器运行任何应用的开源平台。使用 Docker 容器我们可以轻松处理和启用支持 OData 的 JBoss 数据虚拟化。 + +下面是该指南中在 Docker 容器中运行支持 OData 的 JBoss 数据虚拟化的简单步骤。 + +### 1. 克隆仓库 ### + +首先，我们要用 git 命令从 [https://github.com/jbossdemocentral/dv-odata-docker-integration-demo][2] 克隆带数据虚拟化的 OData 仓库。假设我们的机器上运行着 Ubuntu 15.04 linux 发行版。我们要使用 apt-get 命令安装 git。 + + # apt-get install git + +安装完 git 之后，我们运行下面的命令克隆仓库。 + + # git clone https://github.com/jbossdemocentral/dv-odata-docker-integration-demo + + Cloning into 'dv-odata-docker-integration-demo'... + remote: Counting objects: 96, done. + remote: Total 96 (delta 0), reused 0 (delta 0), pack-reused 96 + Unpacking objects: 100% (96/96), done. + Checking connectivity... done. + +### 2. 下载 JBoss 数据虚拟化安装器 ### + +现在，我们需要从下载页 [http://www.jboss.org/products/datavirt/download/][3] 下载 JBoss 数据虚拟化安装器。下载了 **jboss-dv-installer-6.0.0.GA-redhat-4.jar** 后，我们把它保存在名为 **software** 的目录下。 + +### 3. 创建 Docker 镜像 ### + +下一步，下载了 JBoss 数据虚拟化安装器之后，我们打算使用 Dockerfile 和刚从仓库中克隆的资源创建 docker 镜像。 + + # cd dv-odata-docker-integration-demo/ + # docker build -t jbossdv600 . + + ... + Step 22 : USER jboss + ---> Running in 129f701febd0 + ---> 342941381e37 + Removing intermediate container 129f701febd0 + Step 23 : EXPOSE 8080 9990 31000 + ---> Running in 61e6d2c26081 + ---> 351159bb6280 + Removing intermediate container 61e6d2c26081 + Step 24 : CMD $JBOSS_HOME/bin/standalone.sh -c standalone.xml -b 0.0.0.0 -bmanagement 0.0.0.0 + ---> Running in a9fed69b3000 + ---> 407053dc470e + Removing intermediate container a9fed69b3000 + Successfully built 407053dc470e + +注意：在这里我们假设你已经安装了 docker 并正在运行。 + +### 4. 启动 Docker 容器 ### + +创建了支持 oData 的 JBoss 数据虚拟化 Docker 镜像之后，我们打算运行 docker 容器并用 -P 标签指定端口。我们运行下面的命令来实现。 + + # docker run -p 8080:8080 -d -t jbossdv600 + + 7765dee9cd59c49ca26850e88f97c21f46859d2dc1d74166353d898773214c9c + +### 5. 获取容器 IP ### + +启动了 Docker 容器之后，我们想要获取正在运行的 docker 容器的 IP 地址。要做到这点，我们运行后面添加了正在运行容器 id 号的 docker inspect 命令。 + + # docker inspect <$containerID> + + ... + "NetworkSettings": { + "Bridge": "", + "EndpointID": "3e94c5900ac5954354a89591a8740ce2c653efde9232876bc94878e891564b39", + "Gateway": "172.17.42.1", + "GlobalIPv6Address": "", + "GlobalIPv6PrefixLen": 0, + "HairpinMode": false, + "IPAddress": "172.17.0.8", + "IPPrefixLen": 16, + "IPv6Gateway": "", + "LinkLocalIPv6Address": "", + "LinkLocalIPv6PrefixLen": 0, + +### 6. Web 界面 ### + +现在，如果一切如期望的那样进行，当我们用浏览器打开 http://container-ip:8080/ 和 http://container-ip:9990 时会看到支持 oData 的 JBoss 数据虚拟化登录界面和 JBoss 管理界面。管理验证的用户名和密码分别是 admin 和 redhat1！数据虚拟化验证的用户名和密码都是 user。之后，我们可以通过 web 界面在内容间导航。 + +**注意**： 强烈建议在第一次登录后尽快修改密码。 + +### 总结 ### + +终于我们成功地运行了跑着支持 OData 多源虚拟数据库的 JBoss 数据虚拟化 的 Docker 容器。JBoss 数据虚拟化真的是一个很棒的平台，它为多种不同来源的数据进行虚拟化，并将它们转换为商业友好的数据模型，产生通过开放标准接口简单可用的数据。使用 Docker 技术可以简单、安全、快速地部署支持 OData 多源虚拟数据库的 JBoss 数据虚拟化。如果你有任何疑问、建议或者反馈，请在下面的评论框中写下来，以便我们可以改进和更新内容。非常感谢！Enjoy:-) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/linux-how-to/run-jboss-data-virtualization-ga-odata-docker-container/ + +作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/arunp/ +[1]:http://www.redhat.com/en/technologies/jboss-middleware/data-virtualization +[2]:https://github.com/jbossdemocentral/dv-odata-docker-integration-demo +[3]:http://www.jboss.org/products/datavirt/download/ +[4]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle#General_availability_.28GA.29 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/201509/20150813 Linux file system hierarchy v2.0.md b/published/201509/20150813 Linux file system hierarchy v2.0.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6a68efbd67 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150813 Linux file system hierarchy v2.0.md @@ -0,0 +1,440 @@ +Linux 文件系统结构介绍 +================================================================================ + +![](http://www.blackmoreops.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-file-system-hierarchy-v2.0-2480px-blackMORE-Ops.png) + +Linux中的文件是什么？它的文件系统又是什么？那些配置文件又在哪里？我下载好的程序保存在哪里了？在 Linux 中文件系统是标准结构的吗？好了，上图简明地阐释了Linux的文件系统的层次关系。当你苦于寻找配置文件或者二进制文件的时候，这便显得十分有用了。我在下方添加了一些解释以及例子，不过“篇幅较长，可以有空再看”。 + +另外一种情况便是当你在系统中获取配置以及二进制文件时，出现了不一致性问题，如果你是在一个大型组织中，或者只是一个终端用户，这也有可能会破坏你的系统（比如，二进制文件运行在旧的库文件上了）。若然你在[你的Linux系统上做安全审计][1]的话，你将会发现它很容易遭到各种攻击。所以，保持一个清洁的操作系统（无论是Windows还是Linux）都显得十分重要。 + +### Linux的文件是什么？ ### + +对于UNIX系统来说(同样适用于Linux)，以下便是对文件简单的描述： + +> 在UNIX系统中，一切皆为文件；若非文件，则为进程 + +这种定义是比较正确的，因为有些特殊的文件不仅仅是普通文件（比如命名管道和套接字），不过为了让事情变的简单，“一切皆为文件”也是一个可以让人接受的说法。Linux系统也像UNIX系统一样，将文件和目录视如同物，因为目录只是一个包含了其他文件名的文件而已。程序、服务、文本、图片等等，都是文件。对于系统来说，输入和输出设备，基本上所有的设备，都被当做是文件。 + +题图版本历史： + +- Version 2.0 – 17-06-2015 + - – Improved: 添加标题以及版本历史 + - – Improved: 添加/srv，/meida和/proc + - – Improved: 更新了反映当前的Linux文件系统的描述 + - – Fixed: 多处的打印错误 + - – Fixed: 外观和颜色 +- Version 1.0 – 14-02-2015 + - – Created: 基本的图表 + - – Note: 摒弃更低的版本 + +### 下载链接 ### + +以下是大图的下载地址。如果你需要其他格式，请跟原作者联系，他会尝试制作并且上传到某个地方以供下载 + +- [大图 (PNG 格式) – 2480×1755 px – 184KB][2] +- [最大图 (PDF 格式) – 9919x7019 px – 1686KB][3] + +**注意**: PDF格式文件是打印的最好选择，因为它画质很高。 + +### Linux 文件系统描述 ### + +为了有序地管理那些文件，人们习惯把这些文件当做是硬盘上的有序的树状结构，正如我们熟悉的'MS-DOS'(磁盘操作系统)就是一个例子。大的分枝包括更多的分枝，分枝的末梢是树的叶子或者普通的文件。现在我们将会以这树形图为例，但晚点我们会发现为什么这不是一个完全准确的一幅图。 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
目录描述
+ / + 主层次 的根，也是整个文件系统层次结构的根目录
+ /bin + 存放在单用户模式可用的必要命令二进制文件，所有用户都可用，如 cat、ls、cp等等
+ /boot + 存放引导加载程序文件，例如kernels、initrd等
+ /dev + 存放必要的设备文件，例如/dev/null
+ /etc + 存放主机特定的系统级配置文件。其实这里有个关于它名字本身意义上的的争议。在贝尔实验室的UNIX实施文档的早期版本中，/etc表示是“其他（etcetera）目录”，因为从历史上看，这个目录是存放各种不属于其他目录的文件（然而，文件系统目录标准 FSH 限定 /etc 用于存放静态配置文件，这里不该存有二进制文件）。早期文档出版后，这个目录名又重新定义成不同的形式。近期的解释中包含着诸如“可编辑文本配置”或者“额外的工具箱”这样的重定义
+ + + /etc/opt + + + 存储着新增包的配置文件 /opt/.
+ + + /etc/sgml + + + 存放配置文件，比如 catalogs，用于那些处理SGML(译者注：标准通用标记语言)的软件的配置文件
+ + + /etc/X11 + + + X Window 系统11版本的的配置文件
+ + + /etc/xml + + + 配置文件，比如catalogs，用于那些处理XML(译者注：可扩展标记语言)的软件的配置文件
+ /home + 用户的主目录，包括保存的文件，个人配置，等等
+ /lib + /bin/ 和 /sbin/中的二进制文件的必需的库文件
+ /lib<架构位数> + 备用格式的必要的库文件。 这样的目录是可选的，但如果他们存在的话肯定是有需要用到它们的程序
+ /media + 可移动的多媒体(如CD-ROMs)的挂载点。(出现于 FHS-2.3)
+ /mnt + 临时挂载的文件系统
+ /opt + 可选的应用程序软件包
+ /proc + 以文件形式提供进程以及内核信息的虚拟文件系统，在Linux中，对应进程文件系统（procfs ）的挂载点
+ /root + 根用户的主目录
+ /sbin + 必要的系统级二进制文件，比如， init, ip, mount
+ /srv + 系统提供的站点特定数据
+ /tmp + 临时文件 (另见 /var/tmp). 通常在系统重启后删除
+ /usr + 二级层级存储用户的只读数据； 包含(多)用户主要的公共文件以及应用程序
+ + + /usr/bin + + + 非必要的命令二进制文件 (在单用户模式中不需要用到的)；用于所有用户
+ + + /usr/include + + + 标准的包含文件
+ + + /usr/lib + + + 库文件，用于/usr/bin/ 和 /usr/sbin/中的二进制文件
+ + + /usr/lib<架构位数> + + + 备用格式库(可选的)
+ + + /usr/local + + + 三级层次 用于本地数据，具体到该主机上的。通常会有下一个子目录, 比如, bin/, lib/, share/.
+ + + /usr/local/sbin + + + 非必要系统的二进制文件，比如用于不同网络服务的守护进程
+ + + /usr/share + + + 架构无关的 (共享) 数据.
+ + + /usr/src + + + 源代码，比如内核源文件以及与它相关的头文件
+ + + /usr/X11R6 + + + X Window系统，版本号:11，发行版本：6
+ /var + 各式各样的（Variable）文件，一些随着系统常规操作而持续改变的文件就放在这里，比如日志文件，脱机文件，还有临时的电子邮件文件
+ + + /var/cache + + + 应用程序缓存数据. 这些数据是由耗时的I/O(输入/输出)的或者是运算本地生成的结果。这些应用程序是可以重新生成或者恢复数据的。当没有数据丢失的时候，可以删除缓存文件
+ + + /var/lib + + + 状态信息。这些信息随着程序的运行而不停地改变，比如，数据库，软件包系统的元数据等等
+ + + /var/lock + + + 锁文件。这些文件用于跟踪正在使用的资源
+ + + /var/log + + + 日志文件。包含各种日志。
+ + + /var/mail + + + 内含用户邮箱的相关文件
+ + + /var/opt + + + 来自附加包的各种数据都会存储在 /var/opt/.
+ + + /var/run + + + 存放当前系统上次启动以来的相关信息，例如当前登入的用户以及当前运行的daemons(守护进程).
+ + + /var/spool + + + 该spool主要用于存放将要被处理的任务，比如打印队列以及邮件外发队列
+ + + + + /var/mail + + + + + 过时的位置，用于放置用户邮箱文件
+ + + /var/tmp + + + 存放重启后保留的临时文件
+ +### Linux的文件类型 ### + +大多数文件仅仅是普通文件，他们被称为`regular`文件；他们包含普通数据，比如，文本、可执行文件、或者程序、程序的输入或输出等等 + +虽然你可以认为“在Linux中，一切你看到的皆为文件”这个观点相当保险，但这里仍有着一些例外。 + +- `目录`:由其他文件组成的文件 +- `特殊文件`:用于输入和输出的途径。大多数特殊文件都储存在`/dev`中，我们将会在后面讨论这个问题。 +- `链接文件`:让文件或者目录出现在系统文件树结构上多个地方的机制。我们将详细地讨论这个链接文件。 +- `(域)套接字`:特殊的文件类型，和TCP/IP协议中的套接字有点像，提供进程间网络通讯，并受文件系统的访问控制机制保护。 +- `命名管道` : 或多或少有点像sockets(套接字)，提供一个进程间的通信机制，而不用网络套接字协议。 + +### 现实中的文件系统 ### + +对于大多数用户和常规系统管理任务而言，“文件和目录是一个有序的类树结构”是可以接受的。然而，对于电脑而言，它是不会理解什么是树，或者什么是树结构。 + +每个分区都有它自己的文件系统。想象一下，如果把那些文件系统想成一个整体，我们可以构思一个关于整个系统的树结构，不过这并没有这么简单。在文件系统中，一个文件代表着一个`inode`(索引节点)，这是一种包含着构建文件的实际数据信息的序列号：这些数据表示文件是属于谁的，还有它在硬盘中的位置。 + +每个分区都有一套属于他们自己的inode，在一个系统的不同分区中，可以存在有相同inode的文件。 + +每个inode都表示着一种在硬盘上的数据结构，保存着文件的属性，包括文件数据的物理地址。当硬盘被格式化并用来存储数据时(通常发生在初始系统安装过程，或者是在一个已经存在的系统中添加额外的硬盘)，每个分区都会创建固定数量的inode。这个值表示这个分区能够同时存储各类文件的最大数量。我们通常用一个inode去映射2-8k的数据块。当一个新的文件生成后，它就会获得一个空闲的inode。在这个inode里面存储着以下信息： + +- 文件属主和组属主 +- 文件类型(常规文件，目录文件......) +- 文件权限 +- 创建、最近一次读文件和修改文件的时间 +- inode里该信息被修改的时间 +- 文件的链接数(详见下一章) +- 文件大小 +- 文件数据的实际地址 + +唯一不在inode的信息是文件名和目录。它们存储在特殊的目录文件。通过比较文件名和inode的数目，系统能够构造出一个便于用户理解的树结构。用户可以通过ls -i查看inode的数目。在硬盘上，inodes有他们独立的空间。 + +------------------------ + +via: http://www.blackmoreops.com/2015/06/18/linux-file-system-hierarchy-v2-0/ + +译者：[tnuoccalanosrep](https://github.com/tnuoccalanosrep) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://www.blackmoreops.com/2015/02/15/in-light-of-recent-linux-exploits-linux-security-audit-is-a-must/ +[2]:http://www.blackmoreops.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-file-system-hierarchy-v2.0-2480px-blackMORE-Ops.png +[3]:http://www.blackmoreops.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-File-System-Hierarchy-blackMORE-Ops.pdf diff --git a/translated/tech/20150816 How to migrate MySQL to MariaDB on Linux.md b/published/201509/20150816 How to migrate MySQL to MariaDB on Linux.md similarity index 70% rename from translated/tech/20150816 How to migrate MySQL to MariaDB on Linux.md rename to published/201509/20150816 How to migrate MySQL to MariaDB on Linux.md index 70856ec874..40818ae8a5 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150816 How to migrate MySQL to MariaDB on Linux.md +++ b/published/201509/20150816 How to migrate MySQL to MariaDB on Linux.md @@ -1,10 +1,9 @@ - 在 Linux 中怎样将 MySQL 迁移到 MariaDB 上 ================================================================================ -自从甲骨文收购 MySQL 后，很多 MySQL 的开发者和用户放弃了 MySQL 由于甲骨文对 MySQL 的开发和维护更多倾向于闭门的立场。在社区驱动下，促使更多人移到 MySQL 的另一个分支中，叫 MariaDB。在原有 MySQL 开发人员的带领下，MariaDB 的开发遵循开源的理念，并确保 [它的二进制格式与 MySQL 兼容][1]。Linux 发行版如 Red Hat 家族（Fedora，CentOS，RHEL），Ubuntu 和Mint，openSUSE 和 Debian 已经开始使用，并支持 MariaDB 作为 MySQL 的简易替换品。 +自从甲骨文收购 MySQL 后，由于甲骨文对 MySQL 的开发和维护更多倾向于闭门的立场，很多 MySQL 的开发者和用户放弃了 MySQL。在社区驱动下，促使更多人移到 MySQL 的另一个叫 MariaDB 的分支。在原有 MySQL 开发人员的带领下，MariaDB 的开发遵循开源的理念，并确保[它的二进制格式与 MySQL 兼容][1]。Linux 发行版如 Red Hat 家族（Fedora，CentOS，RHEL），Ubuntu 和 Mint，openSUSE 和 Debian 已经开始使用，并支持 MariaDB 作为 MySQL 的直接替换品。 -如果想要将 MySQL 中的数据库迁移到 MariaDB 中，这篇文章就是你所期待的。幸运的是，由于他们的二进制兼容性，MySQL-to-MariaDB 迁移过程是非常简单的。如果你按照下面的步骤，将 MySQL 迁移到 MariaDB 会是无痛的。 +如果你想要将 MySQL 中的数据库迁移到 MariaDB 中，这篇文章就是你所期待的。幸运的是，由于他们的二进制兼容性，MySQL-to-MariaDB 迁移过程是非常简单的。如果你按照下面的步骤，将 MySQL 迁移到 MariaDB 会是无痛的。 ### 准备 MySQL 数据库和表 ### @@ -69,7 +68,7 @@ ### 安装 MariaDB ### -在 CentOS/RHEL 7和Ubuntu（14.04或更高版本）上，最新的 MariaDB 包含在其官方源。在 Fedora 上，自19版本后 MariaDB 已经替代了 MySQL。如果你使用的是旧版本或 LTS 类型如 Ubuntu 13.10 或更早的，你仍然可以通过添加其官方仓库来安装 MariaDB。 +在 CentOS/RHEL 7和Ubuntu（14.04或更高版本）上，最新的 MariaDB 已经包含在其官方源。在 Fedora 上，自19 版本后 MariaDB 已经替代了 MySQL。如果你使用的是旧版本或 LTS 类型如 Ubuntu 13.10 或更早的，你仍然可以通过添加其官方仓库来安装 MariaDB。 [MariaDB 网站][2] 提供了一个在线工具帮助你依据你的 Linux 发行版中来添加 MariaDB 的官方仓库。此工具为 openSUSE, Arch Linux, Mageia, Fedora, CentOS, RedHat, Mint, Ubuntu, 和 Debian 提供了 MariaDB 的官方仓库. @@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ $ sudo yum install MariaDB-server MariaDB-client -安装了所有必要的软件包后，你可能会被要求为 root 用户创建一个新密码。设置 root 的密码后，别忘了恢复备份的 my.cnf 文件。 +安装了所有必要的软件包后，你可能会被要求为 MariaDB 的 root 用户创建一个新密码。设置 root 的密码后，别忘了恢复备份的 my.cnf 文件。 $ sudo cp /opt/my.cnf /etc/mysql/ @@ -111,7 +110,7 @@ $ sudo service mariadb start -或者: +或: $ sudo systemctl start mariadb @@ -141,13 +140,13 @@ ### 结论 ### -如你在本教程中看到的，MySQL-to-MariaDB 的迁移并不难。MariaDB 相比 MySQL 有很多新的功能，你应该知道的。至于配置方面，在我的测试情况下，我只是将我旧的 MySQL 配置文件（my.cnf）作为 MariaDB 的配置文件，导入过程完全没有出现任何问题。对于配置文件，我建议你在迁移之前请仔细阅读MariaDB 配置选项的文件，特别是如果你正在使用 MySQL 的特殊配置。 +如你在本教程中看到的，MySQL-to-MariaDB 的迁移并不难。你应该知道，MariaDB 相比 MySQL 有很多新的功能。至于配置方面，在我的测试情况下，我只是将我旧的 MySQL 配置文件（my.cnf）作为 MariaDB 的配置文件，导入过程完全没有出现任何问题。对于配置文件，我建议你在迁移之前请仔细阅读 MariaDB 配置选项的文件，特别是如果你正在使用 MySQL 的特定配置。 -如果你正在运行更复杂的配置有海量的数据库和表，包括群集或主从复制，看一看 Mozilla IT 和 Operations 团队的 [更详细的指南][3] ，或者 [官方的 MariaDB 文档][4]。 +如果你正在运行有海量的表、包括群集或主从复制的数据库的复杂配置，看一看 Mozilla IT 和 Operations 团队的 [更详细的指南][3] ，或者 [官方的 MariaDB 文档][4]。 ### 故障排除 ### -1.在运行 mysqldump 命令备份数据库时出现以下错误。 +1、 在运行 mysqldump 命令备份数据库时出现以下错误。 $ mysqldump --all-databases --user=root --password --master-data > backupdb.sql @@ -155,7 +154,7 @@ mysqldump: Error: Binlogging on server not active -通过使用 "--master-data"，你要在导出的输出中包含二进制日志信息，这对于数据库的复制和恢复是有用的。但是，二进制日志未在 MySQL 服务器启用。要解决这个错误，修改 my.cnf 文件，并在 [mysqld] 部分添加下面的选项。 +通过使用 "--master-data"，你可以在导出的输出中包含二进制日志信息，这对于数据库的复制和恢复是有用的。但是，二进制日志未在 MySQL 服务器启用。要解决这个错误，修改 my.cnf 文件，并在 [mysqld] 部分添加下面的选项。 log-bin=mysql-bin @@ -176,8 +175,8 @@ via: http://xmodulo.com/migrate-mysql-to-mariadb-linux.html 作者：[Kristophorus Hadiono][a] -译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/校对者ID) +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to count the number of threads in a process on Linux.md b/published/201509/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to count the number of threads in a process on Linux.md similarity index 59% rename from translated/tech/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to count the number of threads in a process on Linux.md rename to published/201509/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to count the number of threads in a process on Linux.md index 96bf143533..8667e99712 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to count the number of threads in a process on Linux.md +++ b/published/201509/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to count the number of threads in a process on Linux.md @@ -1,5 +1,4 @@ - -Linux 有问必答 - 如何在 Linux 中统计一个进程的线程数 +Linux 有问必答：如何在 Linux 中统计一个进程的线程数 ================================================================================ > **问题**: 我正在运行一个程序，它在运行时会派生出多个线程。我想知道程序在运行时会有多少线程。在 Linux 中检查进程的线程数最简单的方法是什么？ @@ -7,11 +6,11 @@ Linux 有问必答 - 如何在 Linux 中统计一个进程的线程数 ### 方法一: /proc ### - proc 伪文件系统，它驻留在 /proc 目录，这是最简单的方法来查看任何活动进程的线程数。 /proc 目录以可读文本文件形式输出，提供现有进程和系统硬件相关的信息如 CPU, interrupts, memory, disk, 等等. +proc 伪文件系统，它驻留在 /proc 目录，这是最简单的方法来查看任何活动进程的线程数。 /proc 目录以可读文本文件形式输出，提供现有进程和系统硬件相关的信息如 CPU、中断、内存、磁盘等等. $ cat /proc//status -上面的命令将显示进程 的详细信息，包括过程状态(例如, sleeping, running)，父进程 PID，UID，GID，使用的文件描述符的数量，以及上下文切换的数量。输出也包括**进程创建的总线程数**如下所示。 +上面的命令将显示进程 \ 的详细信息，包括过程状态（例如, sleeping, running)，父进程 PID，UID，GID，使用的文件描述符的数量，以及上下文切换的数量。输出也包括**进程创建的总线程数**如下所示。 Threads: @@ -23,11 +22,11 @@ Linux 有问必答 - 如何在 Linux 中统计一个进程的线程数 输出表明该进程有28个线程。 -或者，你可以在 /proc//task 中简单的统计目录的数量，如下所示。 +或者，你可以在 /proc//task 中简单的统计子目录的数量，如下所示。 $ ls /proc//task | wc -这是因为，对于一个进程中创建的每个线程，在 /proc//task 中会创建一个相应的目录，命名为其线程 ID。由此在 /proc//task 中目录的总数表示在进程中线程的数目。 +这是因为，对于一个进程中创建的每个线程，在 `/proc//task` 中会创建一个相应的目录，命名为其线程 ID。由此在 `/proc//task` 中目录的总数表示在进程中线程的数目。 ### 方法二: ps ### @@ -35,7 +34,7 @@ Linux 有问必答 - 如何在 Linux 中统计一个进程的线程数 $ ps hH p | wc -l -如果你想监视一个进程的不同线程消耗的硬件资源（CPU & memory），请参阅[此教程][1]。(注：此文我们翻译过) +如果你想监视一个进程的不同线程消耗的硬件资源（CPU & memory），请参阅[此教程][1]。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -43,9 +42,9 @@ via: http://ask.xmodulo.com/number-of-threads-process-linux.html 作者：[Dan Nanni][a] 译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 [a]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/author/nanni -[1]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/view-threads-process-linux.html +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-5633-1.html diff --git a/translated/tech/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix Wireshark GUI freeze on Linux desktop.md b/published/201509/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix Wireshark GUI freeze on Linux desktop.md similarity index 73% rename from translated/tech/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix Wireshark GUI freeze on Linux desktop.md rename to published/201509/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix Wireshark GUI freeze on Linux desktop.md index 9db7231a68..a59a946857 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix Wireshark GUI freeze on Linux desktop.md +++ b/published/201509/20150817 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to fix Wireshark GUI freeze on Linux desktop.md @@ -1,14 +1,6 @@ - -Linux 有问必答--如何解决 Linux 桌面上的 Wireshark GUI 死机 +Linux 有问必答：如何解决 Linux 上的 Wireshark 界面僵死 ================================================================================ -> **问题**: 当我试图在 Ubuntu 上的 Wireshark 中打开一个 pre-recorded 数据包转储时，它的 UI 突然死机，在我发起 Wireshark 的终端出现了下面的错误和警告。我该如何解决这个问题？ - -Wireshark 是一个基于 GUI 的数据包捕获和嗅探工具。该工具被网络管理员普遍使用，网络安全工程师或开发人员对于各种任务的 packet-level 网络分析是必需的，例如在网络故障，漏洞测试，应用程序调试，或逆向协议工程是必需的。 Wireshark 允许记录存活数据包，并通过便捷的图形用户界面浏览他们的协议首部和有效负荷。 - -![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/722/20584224675_f4d7a59474_c.jpg) - -这是 Wireshark 的 UI，尤其是在 Ubuntu 桌面下运行，有时会挂起或冻结出现以下错误，而你是向上或向下滚动分组列表视图时，就开始加载一个 pre-recorded 包转储文件。 - +> **问题**: 当我试图在 Ubuntu 上的 Wireshark 中打开一个 pre-recorded 数据包转储时，它的界面突然死机，在我运行 Wireshark 的终端出现了下面的错误和警告。我该如何解决这个问题？ (wireshark:3480): GLib-GObject-WARNING **: invalid unclassed pointer in cast to 'GObject' (wireshark:3480): GLib-GObject-CRITICAL **: g_object_set_qdata_full: assertion 'G_IS_OBJECT (object)' failed @@ -22,6 +14,15 @@ Wireshark 是一个基于 GUI 的数据包捕获和嗅探工具。该工具被 (wireshark:3480): GLib-GObject-CRITICAL **: g_object_get_qdata: assertion 'G_IS_OBJECT (object)' failed (wireshark:3480): Gtk-CRITICAL **: gtk_widget_set_name: assertion 'GTK_IS_WIDGET (widget)' failed + +Wireshark 是一个基于 GUI 的数据包捕获和嗅探工具。该工具被网络管理员普遍使用，网络安全工程师或开发人员对于各种任务的数据包级的网络分析是必需的，例如在网络故障，漏洞测试，应用程序调试，或逆向协议工程是必需的。 Wireshark 允许实时记录数据包，并通过便捷的图形用户界面浏览他们的协议首部和有效负荷。 + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/722/20584224675_f4d7a59474_c.jpg) + +这是 Wireshark 的 UI，尤其是在 Ubuntu 桌面下运行时，当你向上或向下滚动分组列表视图时，或开始加载一个 pre-recorded 包转储文件时，有时会挂起或冻结，并出现以下错误。 + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/589/20062177334_47c0f2aeae_c.jpg) + 显然，这个错误是由 Wireshark 和叠加滚动条之间的一些不兼容造成的，在最新的 Ubuntu 桌面还没有被解决（例如，Ubuntu 15.04 的桌面）。 一种避免 Wireshark 的 UI 卡死的办法就是 **暂时禁用叠加滚动条**。在 Wireshark 上有两种方法来禁用叠加滚动条，这取决于你在桌面上如何启动 Wireshark 的。 @@ -46,7 +47,7 @@ Wireshark 是一个基于 GUI 的数据包捕获和嗅探工具。该工具被 Exec=env LIBOVERLAY_SCROLLBAR=0 wireshark %f -虽然这种解决方法将有利于所有桌面用户的 system-wide，但它将无法升级 Wireshark。如果你想保留修改的 .desktop 文件，如下所示将它复制到你的主目录。 +虽然这种解决方法可以在系统级帮助到所有桌面用户，但升级 Wireshark 就没用了。如果你想保留修改的 .desktop 文件，如下所示将它复制到你的主目录。 $ cp /usr/share/applications/wireshark.desktop ~/.local/share/applications/ @@ -56,7 +57,7 @@ via: http://ask.xmodulo.com/fix-wireshark-gui-freeze-linux-desktop.html 作者：[Dan Nanni][a] 译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201509/20150818 Debian GNU or Linux Birthday-- A 22 Years of Journey and Still Counting.md b/published/201509/20150818 Debian GNU or Linux Birthday-- A 22 Years of Journey and Still Counting.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e14e0ba320 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150818 Debian GNU or Linux Birthday-- A 22 Years of Journey and Still Counting.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +Debian GNU/Linux，22 年未完的美妙旅程 +================================================================================ + +在2015年8月16日， Debian项目组庆祝了 Debian 的22周年纪念日；这也是开源世界历史最悠久、热门的发行版之一。 Debian项目于1993年由Ian Murdock创立。彼时，Slackware 作为最早的 Linux 发行版已经名声在外。 + +![Happy 22nd Birthday to Debian](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Debian-22nd-Birthday.png) + +*22岁生日快乐! Debian Linux!* + +Ian Ashly Murdock， 一个美国职业软件工程师， 在他还是普渡大学的学生时构想出了 Debian 项目的计划。他把这个项目命名为 Debian 是由于这个名字组合了他彼时女友的名字 Debra Lynn 和他自己的名字 Ian。 他之后和 Lynn 结婚并在2008年1月离婚。 + +![Ian Murdock](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Ian-Murdock.jpeg) + +*Debian 创始人:Ian Murdock* + +Ian 目前是 ExactTarget 的平台与开发社区的副总裁。 + +Debian (如同Slackware一样) 都是由于当时缺乏满足合乎标准的发行版才应运而生的。 Ian 在一次采访中说：“免费提供一流的产品会是 Debian 项目的唯一使命。 尽管过去的 Linux 发行版均不尽然可靠抑或是优秀。 我印象里...比如在不同的文件系统间移动文件， 处理大型文件经常会导致内核出错。 但是 Linux 其实是很可靠的， 自由的源代码让这个项目本质上很有前途。” + +"我记得过去我像其他想解决问题的人一样， 想在家里运行一个像 UNIX 的东西。 但那是不可能的， 无论是经济上还是法律上或是别的什么角度。 然后我就听闻了 GNU 内核开发项目， 以及这个项目是如何没有任何法律纷争"， Ian 补充到。 他早年在开发 Debian 时曾被自由软件基金会(FSF)资助， 这份资助帮助 Debian 取得了长足的发展； 尽管一年后由于学业原因 Ian 退出了 FSF 转而去完成他的学位。 + +### Debian开发历史 ### + +- **Debian 0.01 – 0.09** : 发布于 1993 年八月 – 1993 年十二月。 +- **Debian 0.91** : 发布于 1994 年一月。 有了原始的包管理系统， 没有依赖管理机制。 +- **Debian 0.93 rc5** : 发布于 1995 年三月。 “现代”意义的 Debian 的第一次发布， 在基础系统安装后会使用dpkg 安装以及管理其他软件包。 +- **Debian 0.93 rc6**: 发布于 1995 年十一月。 最后一次 a.out 发布， deselect 机制第一次出现， 有60位开发者在彼时维护着软件包。 +- **Debian 1.1**: 发布于 1996 年六月。 项目代号 – Buzz， 软件包数量 – 474， 包管理器 dpkg， 内核版本 2.0， ELF 二进制。 +- **Debian 1.2**: 发布于 1996 年十二月。 项目代号 – Rex， 软件包数量 – 848， 开发者数量 – 120。 +- **Debian 1.3**: 发布于 1997 年七月。 项目代号 – Bo， 软件包数量 974， 开发者数量 – 200。 +- **Debian 2.0**: 发布于 1998 年七月。 项目代号 - Hamm， 支持构架 – Intel i386 以及 Motorola 68000 系列， 软件包数量: 1500+， 开发者数量: 400+， 内置了 glibc。 +- **Debian 2.1**: 发布于1999 年三月九日。 项目代号 – slink， 支持构架 - Alpha 和 Sparc， apt 包管理器开始成型， 软件包数量 – 2250。 +- **Debian 2.2**: 发布于 2000 年八月十五日。 项目代号 – Potato， 支持构架 – Intel i386， Motorola 68000 系列， Alpha， SUN Sparc， PowerPC 以及 ARM 构架。 软件包数量: 3900+ (二进制) 以及 2600+ (源代码)， 开发者数量 – 450。 有一群人在那时研究并发表了一篇论文， 论文展示了自由软件是如何在被各种问题包围的情况下依然逐步成长为优秀的现代操作系统的。 +- **Debian 3.0**: 发布于 2002 年七月十九日。 项目代号 – woody， 支持构架新增 – HP， PA_RISC， IA-64， MIPS 以及 IBM， 首次以DVD的形式发布， 软件包数量 – 8500+， 开发者数量 – 900+， 支持加密。 +- **Debian 3.1**: 发布于 2005 年六月六日。 项目代号 – sarge， 支持构架 – 新增 AMD64（非官方渠道发布）， 内核 – 2.4 以及 2.6 系列， 软件包数量: 15000+， 开发者数量 : 1500+， 增加了诸如 OpenOffice 套件， Firefox 浏览器， Thunderbird， Gnome 2.8， 支持: RAID， XFS， LVM， Modular Installer。 +- **Debian 4.0**: 发布于 2007 年四月八日。 项目代号 – etch， 支持构架 – 如前，包括 AMD64。 软件包数量: 18，200+ 开发者数量 : 1030+， 图形化安装器。 +- **Debian 5.0**: 发布于 2009 年二月十四日。 项目代号 – lenny， 支持构架 – 新增 ARM。 软件包数量: 23000+， 开发者数量: 1010+。 +- **Debian 6.0**: 发布于 2009 年七月二十九日。 项目代号 – squeeze， 包含的软件包: 内核 2.6.32， Gnome 2.3. Xorg 7.5， 同时包含了 DKMS， 基于依赖包支持。 支持构架 : 新增 kfreebsd-i386 以及 kfreebsd-amd64， 基于依赖管理的启动过程。 +- **Debian 7.0**: 发布于 2013 年五月四日。 项目代号: wheezy， 支持 Multiarch， 私有云工具， 升级了安装器， 移除了第三方软件依赖， 全功能多媒体套件-codec， 内核版本 3.2， Xen Hypervisor 4.1.4 ，软件包数量: 37400+。 +- **Debian 8.0**: 发布于 2015 年五月二十五日。 项目代号: Jessie， 将 Systemd 作为默认的初始化系统， 内核版本 3.16， 增加了快速启动(fast booting)， service进程所依赖的 cgroups 使隔离部分 service 进程成为可能， 43000+ 软件包。 Sysvinit 初始化工具在 Jessie 中可用。 + +**注意**: Linux的内核第一次是在1991 年十月五日被发布， 而 Debian 的首次发布则在1993 年九月十三日。 所以 Debian 已经在只有24岁的 Linux 内核上运行了整整22年了。 + +### Debian 的那些事 ### + +1994年管理和重整了 Debian 项目以使得其他开发者能更好地加入，所以在那一年并没有发布面向用户的更新， 当然， 内部版本肯定是有的。 + +Debian 1.0 从来就没有被发布过。 一家 CD-ROM 的生产商错误地把某个未发布的版本标注为了 1.0， 为了避免产生混乱， 原本的 Debian 1.0 以1.1的面貌发布了。 从那以后才有了所谓的官方CD-ROM的概念。 + +每个 Debian 新版本的代号都是玩具总动员里某个角色的名字哦。 + +Debian 有四种可用版本: 旧稳定版(old stable)， 稳定版(stable)， 测试版(testing) 以及 试验版(experimental)。 始终如此。 + +Debian 项目组一直工作在不稳定发行版上， 这个不稳定版本始终被叫做Sid(玩具总动员里那个邪恶的臭小孩)。 Sid是unstable版本的永久名称， 同时Sid也取自'Still In Development"(译者:还在开发中)的首字母。 Sid 将会成为下一个稳定版， 当前的稳定版本代号为 jessie。 + +Debian 的官方发行版只包含开源并且自由的软件， 绝无其他东西. 不过 contrib 和非自由软件包使得安装那些本身自由但是其依赖的软件包不自由(contrib)的软件和非自由软件成为了可能。 + +Debian 是一堆Linux 发行版之母。 举几个例子: + +- Damn Small Linux +- KNOPPIX +- Linux Advanced +- MEPIS +- Ubuntu +- 64studio (不再活跃开发) +- LMDE + +Debian 是世界上最大的非商业 Linux 发行版。它主要是由C编写的(32.1%)， 一并的还有其他70多种语言。 + +![Debian 开发语言贡献表](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Debian-Programming.png) + +*Debian 开发语言贡献表，图片来源: [Xmodulo][1]* + +Debian 项目包含6，850万行代码， 以及 450万行空格和注释。 + +国际空间站放弃了 Windows 和红帽子， 进而换成了 Debian - 在上面的宇航员使用落后一个版本的稳定发行版， 目前是 squeeze; 这么做是为了稳定程度以及来自 Debian 社区的雄厚帮助支持。 + +感谢上帝! 我们差点就听到来自国际空间宇航员面对 Windows Metro 界面的尖叫了 :P + +#### 黑色星期三 #### + +2002 年十一月二十日， Twente 大学的网络运营中心(NOC)着火。 当地消防部门放弃了服务器区域。 NOC维护着satie.debian.org 的网站服务器， 这个网站包含了安全、非美国相关的存档、新维护者资料、数量报告、数据库等等；这一切都化为了灰烬。 之后这些服务由 Debian 重建了。 + +#### 未来版本 #### + +下一个待发布版本是 Debian 9， 项目代号 – Stretch， 它会带来什么还是个未知数。 满心期待吧! + +有很多发行版在 Linux 发行版的历史上出现过一瞬间然后很快消失了。 在多数情况下， 维护一个日渐庞大的项目是开发者们面临的挑战。 但这对 Debian 来说不是问题。 Debian 项目有全世界成百上千的开发者、维护者。 它在 Linux 诞生的之初起便一直存在。 + +Debian 在 Linux 生态环境中的贡献是难以用语言描述的。 如果 Debian 没有出现过， 那么 Linux 世界将不会像现在这样丰富和用户友好。 Debian 是为数不多可以被认为安全可靠又稳定的发行版，是作为网络服务器完美选择。 + +这仅仅是 Debian 的一个开始。 它走过了这么长的征程， 并将一直走下去。 未来即是现在！ 世界近在眼前！ 如果你到现在还从来没有使用过 Debian， 我只想问， 你还再等什么? 快去下载一份镜像试试吧， 我们会在此守候遇到任何问题的你。 + +- [Debian 主页][2] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/happy-birthday-to-debian-gnu-linux/ + +作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] +译者：[jerryling315](http://moelf.xyz) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ +[1]:http://xmodulo.com/2013/08/interesting-facts-about-debian-linux.html +[2]:https://www.debian.org/ diff --git a/translated/talk/20150818 Docker Working on Security Components Live Container Migration.md b/published/201509/20150818 Docker Working on Security Components Live Container Migration.md similarity index 77% rename from translated/talk/20150818 Docker Working on Security Components Live Container Migration.md rename to published/201509/20150818 Docker Working on Security Components Live Container Migration.md index bd3f0451c7..2e60571b52 100644 --- a/translated/talk/20150818 Docker Working on Security Components Live Container Migration.md +++ b/published/201509/20150818 Docker Working on Security Components Live Container Migration.md @@ -1,16 +1,16 @@ -Docker Working on Security Components, Live Container Migration +Docker 在安全组件、实时容器迁移方面的进展 ================================================================================ ![Docker Container Talk](http://www.eweek.com/imagesvr_ce/1905/290x195DockerMarianna.jpg) -**Docker 开发者在 Containercon 上的演讲，谈论将来的容器在安全和实时迁移方面的创新** +**这是 Docker 开发者在 Containercon 上的演讲，谈论将来的容器在安全和实时迁移方面的创新** 来自西雅图的消息。当前 IT 界最热的词汇是“容器”，美国有两大研讨会：Linuxcon USA 和 Containercon，后者就是为容器而生的。 Docker 公司是开源 Docker 项目的商业赞助商，本次研讨会这家公司有 3 位高管带来主题演讲，但公司创始人 Solomon Hykes 没上场演讲。 -Hykes 曾在 2014 年的 Linuxcon 上进行过一次主题演讲，但今年的 Containeron 他只坐在观众席上。而工程部高级副总裁 Marianna Tessel、Docker 首席安全员 Diogo Monica 和核心维护员 Michael Crosby 为我们演讲 Docker 新增的功能和将来会有的功能。 +Hykes 曾在 2014 年的 Linuxcon 上进行过一次主题演讲，但今年的 Containeron 他只坐在观众席上。而工程部高级副总裁 Marianna Tessel、Docker 首席安全官 Diogo Monica 和核心维护员 Michael Crosby 为我们演讲 Docker 新增的功能和将来会有的功能。 -Tessel 强调 Docker 现在已经被很多世界上最大的组织用在生产环境中，包括美国政府。Docker 也被用在小环境中，比如树莓派，一块树莓派上可以跑 2300 个容器。 +Tessel 强调 Docker 现在已经被很多世界上大型组织用在生产环境中，包括美国政府。Docker 也被用在小环境中，比如树莓派，一块树莓派上可以跑 2300 个容器。 “Docker 的功能正在变得越来越强大，而部署方法变得越来越简单。”Tessel 在会上说道。 @@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ Tessel 把 Docker 形容成一艘游轮，内部由强大而复杂的机器驱 Docker 试图解决的领域是简化安全配置。Tessel 认为对于大多数用户和组织来说，避免网络漏洞所涉及的安全问题是一个乏味而且复杂的过程。 -于是 Docker Content Trust 就出现在 Docker 1.8 release 版本中了。安全项目领导 Diogo Mónica 中加入 Tessel 上台讨论，说安全是一个难题，而 Docker Content Trust 就是为解决这个难道而存在的。 +于是 Docker Content Trust 就出现在 Docker 1.8 release 版本中了。安全项目领导 Diogo Mónica 中加入了 Tessel 的台上讨论，说安全是一个难题，而 Docker Content Trust 就是为解决这个难道而存在的。 -Docker Content Trusst 提供一种方法来验证一个 Docker 应用是否可信，以及多种方法来限制欺骗和病毒注入。 +Docker Content Trust 提供一种方法来验证一个 Docker 应用是否可信，以及多种方法来限制欺骗和病毒注入。 为了证明他的观点，Monica 做了个现场示范，演示 Content Trust 的效果。在一个实验中，一个网站在更新过程中其 Web App 被人为攻破，而当 Content Trust 启动后，这个黑客行为再也无法得逞。 @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ Docker 首席维护员 Micheal Crosby 在台上做了个实时迁移的演示， 一个容器也可以克隆到另一个地方，Crosby 将他的克隆容器称为“多利”，就是世界上第一只被克隆出来的羊的名字。 -Tessel 也花了点时间聊了下 RunC 组件，这是个正在被 Open Container Initiative 作为多方开发的项目，目的是让窗口兼容 Linux、Windows 和 Solaris。 +Tessel 也花了点时间聊了下 RunC 组件，这是个正在被 Open Container Initiative 作为多方开发的项目，目的是让它可以从 Linux 扩展到包括 Windows 和 Solaris 在内的多种操作系统。 Tessel 总结说她不知道 Docker 的未来是什么样，但对此抱非常乐观的态度。 @@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ via: http://www.eweek.com/virtualization/docker-working-on-security-components-l 作者：[Sean Michael Kerner][a] 译者：[bazz2](https://github.com/bazz2) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/talk/20150819 Linuxcon--The Changing Role of the Server OS.md b/published/201509/20150819 Linuxcon--The Changing Role of the Server OS.md similarity index 89% rename from translated/talk/20150819 Linuxcon--The Changing Role of the Server OS.md rename to published/201509/20150819 Linuxcon--The Changing Role of the Server OS.md index 98a0f94b03..2c66635f89 100644 --- a/translated/talk/20150819 Linuxcon--The Changing Role of the Server OS.md +++ b/published/201509/20150819 Linuxcon--The Changing Role of the Server OS.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ LinuxCon: 服务器操作系统的转型 ================================================================================ -来自西雅图。容器迟早要改变世界，以及改变操作系统的角色。这是 Wim Coekaerts 带来的 LinuxCon 演讲主题，Coekaerts 是 Oracle 公司 Linux 与虚拟化工程的高级副总裁。 +西雅图报道。容器迟早要改变世界，以及改变操作系统的角色。这是 Wim Coekaerts 带来的 LinuxCon 演讲主题，Coekaerts 是 Oracle 公司 Linux 与虚拟化工程的高级副总裁。 ![](http://www.serverwatch.com/imagesvr_ce/6421/wim-200x150.jpg) @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ Coekaerts 在开始演讲的时候拿出一张关于“桌面之年”的幻灯 “你需要操作系统做什么事情？”，Coekaerts 回答现场观众：“只需一件事：运行一个应用。操作系统负责管理硬件和资源，来让你的应用运行起来。” -Coakaerts 说在 Docker 容器的帮助下，我们的注意力再次集中在应用上，而在 Oracle，我们将注意力放在如何让应用更好地运行在操作系统上。 +Coakaerts 补充说，在 Docker 容器的帮助下，我们的注意力再次集中在应用上，而在 Oracle，我们将注意力放在如何让应用更好地运行在操作系统上。 “许多人过去常常需要繁琐地安装应用，而现在的年轻人只需要按一个按钮就能让应用在他们的移动设备上运行起来”。 @@ -20,7 +20,6 @@ Docker 的出现不代表虚拟机的淘汰，容器化过程需要经过很长 在这段时间内，容器会与虚拟机共存，并且我们需要一些工具，将应用在容器和虚拟机之间进行转换迁移。Coekaerts 举例说 Oracle 的 VirtualBox 就可以用来帮助用户运行 Docker，而它原来是被广泛用在桌面系统上的一项开源技术。现在 Docker 的 Kitematic 项目将在 Mac 上使用 VirtualBox 运行 Docker。 -### The Open Compute Initiative and Write Once, Deploy Anywhere for Containers ### ### 容器的开放计算计划和一次写随处部署 ### 一个能让容器成功的关键是“一次写，随处部署”的概念。而在容器之间的互操作领域，Linux 基金会的开放计算计划（OCI）扮演一个非常关键的角色。 @@ -43,7 +42,7 @@ via: http://www.serverwatch.com/server-news/linuxcon-the-changing-role-of-the-se 作者：[Sean Michael Kerner][a] 译者：[bazz2](https://github.com/bazz2) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/talk/20150820 A Look at What's Next for the Linux Kernel.md b/published/201509/20150820 A Look at What's Next for the Linux Kernel.md similarity index 77% rename from translated/talk/20150820 A Look at What's Next for the Linux Kernel.md rename to published/201509/20150820 A Look at What's Next for the Linux Kernel.md index daf3e4d0e3..56969d3b24 100644 --- a/translated/talk/20150820 A Look at What's Next for the Linux Kernel.md +++ b/published/201509/20150820 A Look at What's Next for the Linux Kernel.md @@ -1,24 +1,24 @@ -Linux 内核的发展方向 +对 Linux 内核的发展方向的展望 ================================================================================ ![](http://www.eweek.com/imagesvr_ce/485/290x195cilinux1.jpg) -**即将到来的 Linux 4.2 内核涉及到史上最多的贡献者数量，内核开发者 Jonathan Corbet 如是说。** +** Linux 4.2 内核涉及到史上最多的贡献者数量，内核开发者 Jonathan Corbet 如是说。** -来自西雅图。Linux 内核持续增长：代码量在增加，代码贡献者数量也在增加。而随之而来的一些挑战需要处理一下。以上是 Jonathan Corbet 在今年的 LinuxCon 的内核年度报告上提出的主要观点。以下是他的主要演讲内容： +西雅图报道。Linux 内核持续增长：代码量在增加，代码贡献者数量也在增加。而随之而来的一些挑战需要处理一下。以上是 Jonathan Corbet 在今年的 LinuxCon 的内核年度报告上提出的主要观点。以下是他的主要演讲内容： -Linux 4.2 内核依然处于开发阶段，预计在8月23号释出。Corbet 强调有 1569 名开发者为这个版本贡献了代码，其中 277 名是第一次提交代码。 +Linux 4.2 内核已经于上月底释出。Corbet 强调有 1569 名开发者为这个版本贡献了代码，其中 277 名是第一次提交代码。 越来越多的开发者的加入，内核更新非常快，Corbet 估计现在大概 63 天就能产生一个新的内核里程碑。 Linux 4.2 涉及多方面的更新。其中一个就是引进了 OverLayFS，这是一种只读型文件系统，它可以实现在一个容器之上再放一个容器。 -网络系统对小包传输性能也有了提升，这对于高频传输领域如金融交易而言非常重要。提升的方面主要集中在减小处理数据包的时间的能耗。 +网络系统对小包传输性能也有了提升，这对于高频金融交易而言非常重要。提升的方面主要集中在减小处理数据包的时间的能耗。 依然有新的驱动中加入内核。在每个内核发布周期，平均会有 60 到 80 个新增或升级驱动中加入。 另一个主要更新是实时内核补丁，这个特性在 4.0 版首次引进，好处是系统管理员可以在生产环境中打上内核补丁而不需要重启系统。当补丁所需要的元素都已准备就绪，打补丁的过程会在后台持续而稳定地进行。 -**Linux 安全, IoT 和其他关注点 ** +**Linux 安全, IoT 和其他关注点** 过去一年中，安全问题在开源社区是一个很热的话题，这都归因于那些引发高度关注的事件，比如 Heartbleed 和 Shellshock。 @@ -26,9 +26,9 @@ Linux 4.2 涉及多方面的更新。其中一个就是引进了 OverLayFS，这 他强调说过去 10 年间有超过 3 百万行代码不再被开发者修改，而产生 Shellshock 漏洞的代码的年龄已经是 20 岁了，近年来更是无人问津。 -另一个关注点是 2038 问题，Linux 界的“千年虫”，如果不解决，2000 年出现过的问题还会重现。2038 问题说的是在 2038 年一些 Linux 和 Unix 机器会死机（LCTT：32 位系统记录的时间，在2038年1月19日星期二晚上03:14:07之后的下一秒，会变成负数）。Corbet 说现在离 2038 年还有 23 年时间，现在部署的系统都会考虑 2038 问题。 +另一个关注点是 2038 问题，Linux 界的“千年虫”，如果不解决，2000 年出现过的问题还会重现。2038 问题说的是在 2038 年一些 Linux 和 Unix 机器会死机（LCTT译注：32 位系统记录的时间，在2038年1月19日星期二晚上03:14:07之后的下一秒，会变成负数）。Corbet 说现在离 2038 年还有 23 年时间，现在部署的系统都会考虑 2038 问题。 -Linux 已经开始一些初步的方案来修复 2038 问题了，但做的还远远不够。“现在就要修复这个问题，而不是等 20 年后把这个头疼的问题留给下一代解决，我们却享受着退休的美好时光”。 +Linux 已经启动一些初步的方案来修复 2038 问题了，但做的还远远不够。“现在就要修复这个问题，而不是等 20 年后把这个头疼的问题留给下一代解决，我们却享受着退休的美好时光”。 物联网(IoT)也是 Linux 关注的领域，Linux 是物联网嵌入式操作系统的主要占有者，然而这并没有什么卵用。Corget 认为日渐臃肿的内核对于未来的物联网设备来说肯定过于庞大。 @@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ via: http://www.eweek.com/enterprise-apps/a-look-at-whats-next-for-the-linux-ker 作者：[Sean Michael Kerner][a] 译者：[bazz2](https://github.com/bazz2) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/share/20150821 Top 4 open source command-line email clients.md b/published/201509/20150821 Top 4 open source command-line email clients.md similarity index 52% rename from translated/share/20150821 Top 4 open source command-line email clients.md rename to published/201509/20150821 Top 4 open source command-line email clients.md index db28f4c543..1e9ae59c5c 100644 --- a/translated/share/20150821 Top 4 open source command-line email clients.md +++ b/published/201509/20150821 Top 4 open source command-line email clients.md @@ -1,13 +1,12 @@ -KevinSJ Translating -四大开源版命令行邮件客户端 +4 个开源的命令行邮件客户端 ================================================================================ ![](http://opensource.com/sites/default/files/styles/image-full-size/public/images/life/life_mail.png) -无论你承认与否，email并没有消亡。对依赖命令行的 Linux 高级用户而言，离开 shell 转而使用传统的桌面或网页版邮件客户端并不合适。归根结底，命令行最善于处理文件，特别是文本文件，能使效率倍增。 +无论你承认与否，email并没有消亡。对那些对命令行至死不渝的 Linux 高级用户而言，离开 shell 转而使用传统的桌面或网页版邮件客户端并不适应。归根结底，命令行最善于处理文件，特别是文本文件，能使效率倍增。 -幸运的是，也有不少的命令行邮件客户端，他们的用户大都乐于帮助你入门并回答你使用中遇到的问题。但别说我没警告过你：一旦你完全掌握了其中一个客户端，要再使用图基于图形界面的客户端将回变得很困难！ +幸运的是，也有不少的命令行邮件客户端，而它们的用户大都乐于帮助你入门并回答你使用中遇到的问题。但别说我没警告过你：一旦你完全掌握了其中一个客户端，你会发现很难回到基于图形界面的客户端！ -要安装下述四个客户端中的任何一个是非常容易的；主要 Linux 发行版的软件仓库中都提供此类软件，并可通过包管理器进行安装。你也可以再其他的操作系统中寻找并安装这类客户端，但我并未尝试过也没有相关的经验。 +要安装下述四个客户端中的任何一个是非常容易的；主要的 Linux 发行版的软件仓库中都提供此类软件，并可通过包管理器进行安装。你也可以在其它的操作系统中寻找并安装这类客户端，但我并未尝试过也没有相关的经验。 ### Mutt ### @@ -17,7 +16,7 @@ KevinSJ Translating 许多终端爱好者都听说过甚至熟悉 Mutt 和 Alpine， 他们已经存在多年。让我们先看看 Mutt。 -Mutt 支持许多你所期望 email 系统支持的功能：会话，颜色区分，支持多语言，同时还有很多设置选项。它支持 POP3 和 IMAP， 两个主要的邮件传输协议，以及许多邮箱格式。自从1995年诞生以来， Mutt 即拥有一个活跃的开发社区，但最近几年，新版本更多的关注于修复问题和安全更新而非提供新功能。这对大多数 Mutt 用户而言并无大碍，他们钟爱这样的界面，并支持此项目的口号：“所有邮件客户端都很烂，只是这个烂的没那么彻底。” +Mutt 支持许多你所期望 email 系统支持的功能：会话，颜色区分，支持多语言，同时还有很多设置选项。它支持 POP3 和 IMAP 这两个主要的邮件传输协议，以及许多邮箱格式。自从1995年诞生以来， Mutt 就拥有了一个活跃的开发社区，但最近几年，新版本更多的关注于修复问题和安全更新而非提供新功能。这对大多数 Mutt 用户而言并无大碍，他们钟爱这样的界面，并支持此项目的口号：“所有邮件客户端都很烂，只是这个烂的没那么彻底。” ### Alpine ### @@ -25,13 +24,13 @@ Mutt 支持许多你所期望 email 系统支持的功能：会话，颜色区 - [源代码][5] - 授权协议: [Apache 2.0][6] -Alpine 是另一款知名的终端邮件客户端，它由华盛顿大学开发，初衷是作为 UW 开发的 Pine 的开源，支持unicode的替代版本。 +Alpine 是另一款知名的终端邮件客户端，它由华盛顿大学开发，设计初衷是作为一个开源的、支持 unicode 的 Pine （也来自华盛顿大学）的替代版本。 Alpine 不仅容易上手，还为高级用户提供了很多特性，它支持很多协议 —— IMAP, LDAP, NNTP, POP, SMTP 等，同时也支持不同的邮箱格式。Alpine 内置了一款名为 Pico 的可独立使用的简易文本编辑工具，但你也可以使用你常用的文本编辑器： vi, Emacs等。 -尽管Alpine的升级并不频繁，名为re-alpine的分支为不同的开发者提供了开发此项目的机会。 +尽管 Alpine 的升级并不频繁，不过有个名为 re-alpine 的分支为不同的开发者提供了开发此项目的机会。 -Alpine 支持再屏幕上显示上下文帮助，但一些用户回喜欢 Mutt 式的独立说明手册，但这两种提供了较好的说明。用户可以同时尝试 Mutt 和 Alpine，并由个人喜好作出决定，也可以尝试以下几个比较新颖的选项。 +Alpine 支持在屏幕上显示上下文帮助，但一些用户会喜欢 Mutt 式的独立说明手册，不过它们两个的文档都很完善。用户可以同时尝试 Mutt 和 Alpine，并由个人喜好作出决定，也可以尝试以下的几个新选择。 ### Sup ### @@ -39,10 +38,9 @@ Alpine 支持再屏幕上显示上下文帮助，但一些用户回喜欢 Mutt - [源代码][8] - 授权协议: [GPLv2][9] -Sup 是我们列表中能被称为“大容量邮件客户端”的两个之一。自称“为邮件较多的人设计的命令行客户端”，Sup 的目标是提供一个支持层次化设计并允许再为会话添加标签进行简单整理的界面。 +Sup 是我们列表中能被称为“大容量邮件客户端”的二者之一。自称“为邮件较多的人设计的命令行客户端”，Sup 的目标是提供一个支持层次化设计并允许为会话添加标签进行简单整理的界面。 由于采用 Ruby 编写，Sup 能提供十分快速的搜索并能自动管理联系人列表，同时还允许自定义插件。对于使用 Gmail 作为网页邮件客户端的人们，这些功能都是耳熟能详的，这就使得 Sup 成为一种比较现代的命令行邮件管理方式。 -Written in Ruby, Sup provides exceptionally fast searching, manages your contact list automatically, and allows for custom extensions. For people who are used to Gmail as a webmail interface, these features will seem familiar, and Sup might be seen as a more modern approach to email on the command line. ### Notmuch ### @@ -52,16 +50,17 @@ Written in Ruby, Sup provides exceptionally fast searching, manages your contact "Sup? Notmuch." Notmuch 作为 Sup 的回应，最初只是重写了 Sup 的一小部分来提高性能。最终，这个项目逐渐变大并成为了一个独立的邮件客户端。 -Notmuch是一款相当精简的软件。它并不能独立的收发邮件，启用 Notmuch 的快速搜索功能的代码实际上是一个需要调用的独立库。但这样的模块化设计也使得你能使用你最爱的工具进行写信，发信和收信，集中精力做好一件事情并有效浏览和管理你的邮件。 +Notmuch 是一款相当精简的软件。它并不能独立的收发邮件，启用 Notmuch 的快速搜索功能的代码实际上是设计成一个程序可以调用的独立库。但这样的模块化设计也使得你能使用你最爱的工具进行写信，发信和收信，集中精力做好一件事情并有效浏览和管理你的邮件。 + +这个列表并不完整，还有很多 email 客户端，它们或许才是你的最佳选择。你喜欢什么客户端呢？ -这个列表并不完整，还有很多 email 客户端，他们或许才是你的最佳选择。你喜欢什么客户端呢？ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- via: http://opensource.com/life/15/8/top-4-open-source-command-line-email-clients 作者：[Jason Baker][a] 译者：[KevinSJ](https://github.com/KevinSj) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/20150824 Basics Of NetworkManager Command Line Tool Nmcli.md b/published/201509/20150824 Basics Of NetworkManager Command Line Tool Nmcli.md similarity index 76% rename from translated/tech/20150824 Basics Of NetworkManager Command Line Tool Nmcli.md rename to published/201509/20150824 Basics Of NetworkManager Command Line Tool Nmcli.md index 5ddb31d1ea..19b5a9cd02 100644 --- a/translated/tech/20150824 Basics Of NetworkManager Command Line Tool Nmcli.md +++ b/published/201509/20150824 Basics Of NetworkManager Command Line Tool Nmcli.md @@ -1,14 +1,15 @@ -网络管理命令行工具基础，Nmcli +Nmcli 网络管理命令行工具基础 ================================================================================ + ![](http://1102047360.rsc.cdn77.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/networking1.jpg) ### 介绍 ### -在本教程中，我们会在CentOS / RHEL 7中讨论网络管理工具，也叫**nmcli**。那些使用**ifconfig**的用户应该在CentOS 7中避免使用这个命令。 +在本教程中，我们会在CentOS / RHEL 7中讨论网络管理工具（NetworkManager command line tool），也叫**nmcli**。那些使用**ifconfig**的用户应该在CentOS 7中避免使用**ifconfig** 了。 让我们用nmcli工具配置一些网络设置。 -### 要得到系统中所有接口的地址信息 ### +#### 要得到系统中所有接口的地址信息 #### [root@localhost ~]# ip addr show @@ -27,13 +28,13 @@ inet6 fe80::20c:29ff:fe67:2f4c/64 scope link valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever -#### 检索与连接的接口相关的数据包统计 #### +#### 检索与已连接的接口相关的数据包统计 #### [root@localhost ~]# ip -s link show eno16777736 **示例输出：** -![unxmen_(011)](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_0111.png) +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_0111.png) #### 得到路由配置 #### @@ -50,11 +51,11 @@ 输出像traceroute，但是更加完整。 -![unxmen_0121](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_01211.png) +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_01211.png) ### nmcli 工具 ### -**Nmcli** 是一个非常丰富和灵活的命令行工具。nmcli使用的情况有： +**nmcli** 是一个非常丰富和灵活的命令行工具。nmcli使用的情况有： - **设备** – 正在使用的网络接口 - **连接** – 一组配置设置，对于一个单一的设备可以有多个连接，可以在连接之间切换。 @@ -63,7 +64,7 @@ [root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection show -![unxmen_(013)](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_013.png) +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_013.png) #### 得到特定连接的详情 #### @@ -71,7 +72,7 @@ **示例输出：** -![unxmen_(014)](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_0141.png) +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_0141.png) #### 得到网络设备状态 #### @@ -89,7 +90,7 @@ 这里， -- **Connection add** – 添加新的连接 +- **connection add** – 添加新的连接 - **con-name** – 连接名 - **type** – 设备类型 - **ifname** – 接口名 @@ -100,7 +101,7 @@ Connection 'dhcp' (163a6822-cd50-4d23-bb42-8b774aeab9cb) successfully added. -#### 不同过dhcp分配IP，使用“static”添加地址 #### +#### 不通过dhcp分配IP，使用“static”添加地址 #### [root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection add con-name "static" ifname eno16777736 autoconnect no type ethernet ip4 192.168.1.240 gw4 192.168.1.1 @@ -112,25 +113,23 @@ [root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection up eno1 -Again Check, whether ip address is changed or not. 再检查一遍，ip地址是否已经改变 [root@localhost ~]# ip addr show -![unxmen_(015)](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_0151.png) +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_0151.png) #### 添加DNS设置到静态连接中 #### [root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection modify "static" ipv4.dns 202.131.124.4 -#### 添加额外的DNS值 #### +#### 添加更多的DNS #### -[root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection modify "static" +ipv4.dns 8.8.8.8 + [root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection modify "static" +ipv4.dns 8.8.8.8 **注意**：要使用额外的**+**符号，并且要是**+ipv4.dns**，而不是**ip4.dns**。 - -添加一个额外的ip地址: +####添加一个额外的ip地址#### [root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection modify "static" +ipv4.addresses 192.168.200.1/24 @@ -138,11 +137,11 @@ Again Check, whether ip address is changed or not. [root@localhost ~]# nmcli connection up eno1 -![unxmen_(016)](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_016.png) +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/unxmen_016.png) 你会看见，设置生效了。 -完结 +完结。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -150,6 +149,6 @@ via: http://www.unixmen.com/basics-networkmanager-command-line-tool-nmcli/ 作者：Rajneesh Upadhyay 译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201509/20150824 Fix No Bootable Device Found Error After Installing Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150824 Fix No Bootable Device Found Error After Installing Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4b8e84bf1d --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150824 Fix No Bootable Device Found Error After Installing Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +修复安装完 Ubuntu 后无可引导设备的错误 +================================================================================ + +通常情况下，我会安装启动 Ubuntu 和 Windows 的双系统，但是这次我决定完全消除 Windows 纯净安装 Ubuntu。纯净安装 Ubuntu 完成后，结束时屏幕输出 **无可引导设备(no bootable device found)** 而不是进入 GRUB 界面。显然，安装搞砸了 UEFI 引导设置。 + +![安装完 Ubuntu 后无可引导设备](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_1.jpg) + +我会告诉你我是如何修复**在宏碁笔记本上安装 Ubuntu 后出现无可引导设备错误**的。我声明了我使用的是宏碁灵越 R13，这很重要，因为我们需要更改固件设置，而这些设置可能因制造商和设备有所不同。 + +因此在你开始这里介绍的步骤之前，先看一下发生这个错误时我计算机的状态： + +- 我的宏碁灵越 R13 预装了 Windows 8.1 和 UEFI 引导管理器 +- 安全引导（ Secure boot）没有关闭，（我的笔记本刚维修过，维修人员又启用了它，直到出现了问题我才发现）。你可以阅读这篇博文了解[如何在宏碁笔记本中关闭安全引导（secure boot）][1] +- 我选择了清除所有东西安装 Ubuntu，例如现有的 Windows 8.1，各种分区等 +- 安装完 Ubuntu 之后，从硬盘启动时我看到无可引导设备错误。但能从 USB 设备正常启动 + +在我看来，没有禁用安全引导（secure boot）可能是这个错误的原因。但是，我没有数据支撑我的观点。这仅仅是预感。有趣的是，双系统启动 Windows 和 Linux 经常会出现这两个 Grub 问题： + +- [错误：没有 grub 救援分区][2] +- [支持最小化 BASH 式的行编辑][3] + +如果你遇到类似的情况，你可以试试我的修复方法。 + +### 修复安装完 Ubuntu 后无可引导设备错误 ### + +请原谅我的图片质量很差。我的一加相机不能很好地拍摄笔记本屏幕。 + +#### 第一步 #### + +关闭电源并进入引导设置。我需要在宏碁灵越 R13 上快速地按下 Fn+F2。如果你使用固态硬盘的话要按的非常快，因为固态硬盘启动速度很快。这取决于你的制造商，你可能要用 Del 或 F10 或者 F12。 + +#### 第二步 #### + +在引导设置中，确保启用了 Secure Boot。它在 Boot 标签里。 + +#### 第三步 #### + +进入到 Security 标签，找到 “选择一个用于执行的可信任 UEFI 文件（Select an UEFI file as trusted for executing）” 并敲击回车。 + +![修复无可引导设备错误](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_2.jpg) + +特意说明，我们这一步是要在你的设备中添加 UEFI 设置文件（安装 Ubuntu 的时候生成）到可信 UEFI 启动中。如果你记得的话，UEFI 启动的主要目的是提供安全性，由于（可能）没有禁用安全引导（Secure Boot），设备不会试图从新安装的操作系统中启动。添加它到类似白名单的可信列表，会使设备从 Ubuntu UEFI 文件启动。 + +#### 第四步 #### + +在这里你可以看到你的硬盘，例如 HDD0。如果你有多块硬盘，我希望你记住你安装 Ubuntu 的那块。同样敲击回车。 + +![在 Boot 设置中修复无可引导设备错误](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_3.jpg) + +#### 第五步 #### + +你应该可以看到 \ 了，敲击回车。 + +![在 UEFI 中修复设置](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_4.jpg) + +#### 第六步 #### + +在下一个屏幕中你会看到 \。耐心点，马上就好了。 + +![安装完 Ubuntu 后修复启动错误](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_5.jpg) + +#### 第七步 #### + +你可以看到 shimx64.efi，grubx64.efi 和 MokManager.efi 文件。重要的是 shimx64.efi。选中它并敲击回车。 + + +![修复无可引导设备](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_6.jpg) + +在下一个屏幕中，输入 Yes 并敲击回车。 + +![无可引导设备_7](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_7.jpg) + +#### 第八步 #### + +当我们添加它到可信 EFI 文件并执行后，按 F10 保存并退出。 + +![保存并退出固件设置](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_8.jpg) + +重启你的系统，这时你就可以看到熟悉的 GRUB 界面了。就算你没有看到 Grub 界面，起码也再也不会看到“无可引导设备”。你应该可以进入 Ubuntu 了。 + +如果修复后搞乱了你的 Grub 界面，但你确实能登录系统，你可以重装 Grub 并进入到 Ubuntu 熟悉的紫色 Grub 界面。 + +我希望这篇指南能帮助你修复无可引导设备错误。欢迎提出任何疑问、建议或者感谢。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/no-bootable-device-found-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://itsfoss.com/disable-secure-boot-in-acer/ +[2]:http://itsfoss.com/solve-error-partition-grub-rescue-ubuntu-linux/ +[3]:http://itsfoss.com/fix-minimal-bash-line-editing-supported-grub-error-linux/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/201509/20150824 How To Add Hindi And Devanagari Support In Antergos And Arch Linux.md b/published/201509/20150824 How To Add Hindi And Devanagari Support In Antergos And Arch Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..82063aae7a --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150824 How To Add Hindi And Devanagari Support In Antergos And Arch Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +也许你需要在 Antergos 与 Arch Linux 中查看印度语和梵文？ +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Indian-languages.jpg) + +你们到目前或许知道，我最近一直在尝试体验 [Antergos Linux][1]。在安装完[Antergos][2]后我所首先注意到的一些事情是在默认的 Chromium 浏览器中**没法正确显示印度语脚本**。 + +这是一件奇怪的事情，在我之前桌面Linux的体验中是从未遇到过的。起初，我认为是浏览器的问题，所以我安装了Firefox，然而问题依旧，Firefox也不能正确显示印度语。和Chromium不显示任何东西不同的是，Firefox确实显示了一些东西，但是毫无可读性。 + +![No hindi support in Arch Linux based Antergos](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Hindi_Support_Antergos_Arch_linux_1.jpeg) + +*Chromium中的印度语显示* + + +![No hindi support in Arch Linux based Antergos](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Hindi_Support_Antergos_Arch_linux_2.jpeg) + +*Firefox中的印度语显示* + +奇怪吧？那么，默认情况下基于Arch的Antergos Linux中没有印度语的支持吗？我没有去验证，但是我假设其它基于梵语脚本的印地语之类会产生同样的问题。 + +在这个快速指南中，我打算为大家演示如何来添加梵语支持，以便让印度语和其它印地语都能正确显示。 + +### 在Antergos和Arch Linux中添加印地语支持 ### + +打开终端，使用以下命令： + + sudo yaourt -S ttf-indic-otf + +键入密码，它会提供给你对于印地语的译文支持。 + +重启Firefox，会马上正确显示印度语了，但是它需要一次重启来显示印度语。因此，我建议你在安装了印地语字体后**重启你的系统**。 + +![Adding Hindi display support in Arch based Antergos Linux](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Hindi_Support_Antergos_Arch_linux_4.jpeg) + +我希望这篇快速指南能够帮助你，让你可以在Antergos和其它基于Arch的Linux发行版中，如Manjaro Linux，阅读印度语、梵文、泰米尔语、泰卢固语、马拉雅拉姆语、孟加拉语，以及其它印地语。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/display-hindi-arch-antergos/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://antergos.com/ +[2]:http://itsfoss.com/tag/antergos/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150824 How to create an AP in Ubuntu 15.04 to connect to Android or iPhone.md b/published/201509/20150824 How to create an AP in Ubuntu 15.04 to connect to Android or iPhone.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e7ee7d760d --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150824 How to create an AP in Ubuntu 15.04 to connect to Android or iPhone.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +如何在 Ubuntu 15.04 下创建一个可供 Android/iOS 连接的 AP +================================================================================ +我成功地在 Ubuntu 15.04 下用 Gnome Network Manager 创建了一个无线AP热点。接下来我要分享一下我的步骤。请注意：你必须要有一个可以用来创建AP热点的无线网卡。如果你不知道如何确认它的话，在终端(Terminal)里输入`iw list`。 + +如果你没有安装`iw`的话, 在Ubuntu下你可以使用`sudo apt-get install iw`进行安装. + +在你键入`iw list`之后, 查看“支持的接口模式”， 你应该会看到类似下面的条目中看到 AP: + + Supported interface modes: + + * IBSS + * managed + * AP + * AP/VLAN + * monitor + * mesh point + +让我们一步步看： + +1、 断开WIFI连接。使用有线网络接入你的笔记本。 + +2、 在顶栏面板里点击网络的图标 -> Edit Connections(编辑连接) -> 在弹出窗口里点击Add(新增)按钮。 + +3、 在下拉菜单内选择Wi-Fi。 + +4、 接下来： + +a、 输入一个链接名 比如: Hotspot 1 + +b、 输入一个 SSID 比如: Hotspot 1 + +c、 选择模式(mode): Infrastructure （基础设施） + +d、 设备 MAC 地址: 在下拉菜单里选择你的无线设备 + +![](http://i2.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome1.jpg) + +5、 进入Wi-Fi安全选项卡，选择 WPA & WPA2 Personal 并且输入密码。 +6、 进入IPv4设置选项卡，在Method(方法)下拉菜单里，选择Shared to other computers(共享至其他电脑)。 + +![](http://i1.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome4.jpg) + +7、 进入IPv6选项卡，在Method(方法)里设置为忽略ignore (只有在你不使用IPv6的情况下这么做) +8、 点击 Save(保存) 按钮以保存配置。 +9、 从 menu/dash 里打开Terminal。 +10、 修改你刚刚使用 network settings 创建的连接。 + +使用 VIM 编辑器: + + sudo vim /etc/NetworkManager/system-connections/Hotspot + +或使用Gedit 编辑器: + + gksu gedit /etc/NetworkManager/system-connections/Hotspot + +把名字 Hotspot 用你在第4步里起的连接名替换掉。 + +![](http://i2.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome2.jpg?resize=640%2C402) + +a、 把 `mode=infrastructure` 改成 `mode=ap` 并且保存文件。 +b、 一旦你保存了这个文件，你应该能在 Wifi 菜单里看到你刚刚建立的AP了。(如果没有的话请再顶栏里 关闭/打开 Wifi 选项一次) + +![](http://i1.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome3.jpg?resize=290%2C375) + +11、你现在可以把你的设备连上Wifi了。已经过 Android 5.0的小米4测试。(下载了1GB的文件以测试速度与稳定性) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.linuxveda.com/2015/08/23/how-to-create-an-ap-in-ubuntu-15-04-to-connect-to-androidiphone/ + +作者：[Sayantan Das][a] +译者：[jerryling315](https://github.com/jerryling315) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.linuxveda.com/author/sayantan_das/ diff --git a/translated/talk/20150824 Linux about to gain a new file system--bcachefs.md b/published/201509/20150824 Linux about to gain a new file system--bcachefs.md similarity index 53% rename from translated/talk/20150824 Linux about to gain a new file system--bcachefs.md rename to published/201509/20150824 Linux about to gain a new file system--bcachefs.md index 4fe4bf8ff9..c7946e9fad 100644 --- a/translated/talk/20150824 Linux about to gain a new file system--bcachefs.md +++ b/published/201509/20150824 Linux about to gain a new file system--bcachefs.md @@ -1,14 +1,15 @@ -Linux 界将出现一个新的文件系统：bcachefs +Linux 上将出现一个新的文件系统：bcachefs ================================================================================ -这个有 5 年历史，由 Kent Oberstreet 创建，过去属于谷歌的文件系统，最近完成了关键的组件。Bcachefs 文件系统自称其性能和稳定性与 ext4 和 xfs 相同，而其他方面的功能又可以与 btrfs 和 zfs 相媲美。主要特性包括校验、压缩、多设备支持、缓存、快照与其他好用的特性。 -Bcachefs 来自 **bcache**，这是一个块级缓存层，从 bcaceh 到一个功能完整的[写时复制][1]文件系统，堪称是一项质的转变。 +这个有 5 年历史，由 Kent Oberstreet 创建，过去属于谷歌的文件系统，最近完成了全部关键组件。Bcachefs 文件系统自称其性能和稳定性与 ext4 和 xfs 相同，而其他方面的功能又可以与 btrfs 和 zfs 相媲美。主要特性包括校验、压缩、多设备支持、缓存、快照与其他“漂亮”的特性。 -在自己提出问题“为什么要出一个新的文件系统”中，Kent Oberstreet 作了以下回答：当我还在谷歌的时候，我与其他在 bcache 上工作的同事在偶然的情况下意识到我们正在使用的东西可以成为一个成熟文件系统的功能块，我们可以用 bcache 创建一个拥有干净而优雅设计的文件系统，而最重要的一点是，bcachefs 的主要目的就是在性能和稳定性上能与 ext4 和 xfs 匹敌，同时拥有 btrfs 和 zfs 的特性。 +Bcachefs 来自 **bcache**，这是一个块级缓存层。从 bcaceh 到一个功能完整的[写时复制][1]文件系统，堪称是一项质的转变。 + +对自己的问题“为什么要出一个新的文件系统”中，Kent Oberstreet 自问自答道：当我还在谷歌的时候，我与其他在 bcache 上工作的同事在偶然的情况下意识到我们正在使用的东西可以成为一个成熟文件系统的功能块，我们可以用 bcache 创建一个拥有干净而优雅设计的文件系统，而最重要的一点是，bcachefs 的主要目的就是在性能和稳定性上能与 ext4 和 xfs 匹敌，同时拥有 btrfs 和 zfs 的特性。 Overstreet 邀请人们在自己的系统上测试 bcachefs，可以通过邮件列表[通告]获取 bcachefs 的操作指南。 -Linux 生态系统中文件系统几乎处于一家独大状态，Fedora 在第 16 版的时候就想用 btrfs 换掉 ext4 作为其默认文件系统，但是到现在（LCTT：都出到 Fedora 22 了）还在使用 ext4。而几乎所有 Debian 系的发行版（Ubuntu、Mint、elementary OS 等）也使用 ext4 作为默认文件系统，并且这些主流的发生版都没有替换默认文件系统的意思。 +Linux 生态系统中文件系统几乎处于一家独大状态，Fedora 在第 16 版的时候就想用 btrfs 换掉 ext4 作为其默认文件系统，但是到现在（LCTT：都出到 Fedora 22 了）还在使用 ext4。而几乎所有 Debian 系的发行版（Ubuntu、Mint、elementary OS 等）也使用 ext4 作为默认文件系统，并且这些主流的发行版都没有替换默认文件系统的意思。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -16,7 +17,7 @@ via: http://www.linuxveda.com/2015/08/22/linux-gain-new-file-system-bcachefs/ 作者：[Paul Hill][a] 译者：[bazz2](https://github.com/bazz2) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201509/20150824 Mhddfs--Combine Several Smaller Partition into One Large Virtual Storage.md b/published/201509/20150824 Mhddfs--Combine Several Smaller Partition into One Large Virtual Storage.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..eb462bfe6a --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150824 Mhddfs--Combine Several Smaller Partition into One Large Virtual Storage.md @@ -0,0 +1,157 @@ +Mhddfs：将多个小分区合并成一个大的虚拟存储 +================================================================================ + +让我们假定你有30GB的电影，并且你有3个驱动器，每个的大小为20GB。那么，你会怎么来存放东西呢？ + +很明显，你可以将你的视频分割成2个或者3个不同的卷，并将它们手工存储到驱动器上。这当然不是一个好主意，它成了一项费力的工作，它需要你手工干预，而且花费你大量时间。 + +另外一个解决方案是创建一个 [RAID磁盘阵列][1]。然而，RAID在存储可靠性，磁盘空间可用性差等方面声名狼藉。另外一个解决方案，就是mhddfs。 + +![Combine Multiple Partitions in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Combine-Multiple-Partitions-in-Linux.png) + +*Mhddfs——在Linux中合并多个分区* + +mhddfs是一个用于Linux的设备驱动，它可以将多个挂载点合并到一个虚拟磁盘中。它是一个基于FUSE的驱动，提供了一个用于大数据存储的简单解决方案。它可以将所有小文件系统合并，创建一个单一的大虚拟文件系统，该文件系统包含其成员文件系统的所有内容，包括文件和空闲空间。 + +#### 你为什么需要Mhddfs？ #### + +你的所有存储设备会创建为一个单一的虚拟池，它可以在启动时被挂载。这个小工具可以智能地照看并处理哪个存储满了，哪个存储空着，以及将数据写到哪个存储中。当你成功创建虚拟驱动器后，你可以使用[SAMBA][2]来共享你的虚拟文件系统。你的客户端将在任何时候都看到一个巨大的驱动器和大量的空闲空间。 + +#### Mhddfs特性 #### + +- 获取文件系统属性和系统信息。 +- 设置文件系统属性。 +- 创建、读取、移除和写入目录和文件。 +- 在单一设备上支持文件锁和硬链接。 + +|mhddfs的优点|mhddfs的缺点| +|-----------|-----------| +|适合家庭用户|mhddfs驱动没有内建在Linux内核中 | +|运行简单|运行时需要大量处理能力| +|没有明显的数据丢失|没有冗余解决方案| +|不需要分割文件|不支持移动硬链接| +|可以添加新文件到组成的虚拟文件系统|| +|可以管理文件保存的位置|| +|支持扩展文件属性|| + +### Linux中安装Mhddfs ### + +在Debian及其类似的移植系统中，你可以使用下面的命令来安装mhddfs包。 + + # apt-get update && apt-get install mhddfs + +![Install Mhddfs on Debian based Systems](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Mhddfs-on-Ubuntu.png) + +*安装Mhddfs到基于Debian的系统中* + +在RHEL/CentOS Linux系统中，你需要开启[epel仓库][3]，然后执行下面的命令来安装mhddfs包。 + + # yum install mhddfs + +在Fedora 22及以上系统中，你可以通过dnf包管理来获得它，就像下面这样。 + + # dnf install mhddfs + +![Install Mhddfs on Fedora](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Mhddfs-on-Fedora.png) + +*安装Mhddfs到Fedora* + +如果万一mhddfs包不能从epel仓库获取到，那么你需要解决下面的依赖，然后像下面这样来编译源码并安装。 + +- FUSE头文件 +- GCC +- libc6头文件 +- uthash头文件 +- libattr1头文件（可选） + +接下来，只需从下面建议的地址下载最新的源码包，然后编译。 + + # wget http://mhddfs.uvw.ru/downloads/mhddfs_0.1.39.tar.gz + # tar -zxvf mhddfs*.tar.gz + # cd mhddfs-0.1.39/ + # make + +你应该可以在当前目录中看到mhddfs的二进制文件，以root身份将它移动到/usr/bin/和/usr/local/bin/中。 + + # cp mhddfs /usr/bin/ + # cp mhddfs /usr/local/bin/ + +一切搞定，mhddfs已经可以用了。 + +### 我怎么使用Mhddfs？ ### + +1、 让我们看看当前所有挂载到我们系统中的硬盘。 + + $ df -h + +![Check Mounted Devices](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Check-Mounted-Devices.gif) + +**样例输出** + + Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on + + /dev/sda1 511M 132K 511M 1% /boot/efi + /dev/sda2 451G 92G 336G 22% / + /dev/sdb1 1.9T 161G 1.7T 9% /media/avi/BD9B-5FCE + /dev/sdc1 555M 555M 0 100% /media/avi/Debian 8.1.0 M-A 1 + +注意这里的‘挂载点’名称，我们后面会使用到它们。 + +2、 创建目录‘/mnt/virtual_hdd’，所有这些文件系统将会在这里组织到一起。 + + # mkdir /mnt/virtual_hdd + +3、 然后，挂载所有文件系统。你可以通过root或者FUSE组中的某个用户来完成。 + + # mhddfs /boot/efi, /, /media/avi/BD9B-5FCE/, /media/avi/Debian\ 8.1.0\ M-A\ 1/ /mnt/virtual_hdd -o allow_other + +![Mount All File System in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Mount-All-File-System-in-Linux.png) + +*在Linux中挂载所有文件系统* + +**注意**：这里我们使用了所有硬盘的挂载点名称，很明显，你的挂载点名称会有所不同。也请注意“-o allow_other”选项可以让这个虚拟文件系统让其它所有人可见，而不仅仅是创建它的人。 + +4、 现在，运行“df -h”来看看所有文件系统。它应该包含了你刚才创建的那个。 + + $ df -h + +![Verify Virtual File System Mount](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Verify-Virtual-File-System.png) + +*验证虚拟文件系统挂载* + +你可以像对已挂在的驱动器那样给虚拟文件系统应用所有的选项。 + +5、 要在每次系统启动创建这个虚拟文件系统，你应该以root身份添加下面的这行代码（在你那里会有点不同，取决于你的挂载点）到/etc/fstab文件的末尾。 + + mhddfs# /boot/efi, /, /media/avi/BD9B-5FCE/, /media/avi/Debian\ 8.1.0\ M-A\ 1/ /mnt/virtual_hdd fuse defaults,allow_other 0 0 + +6、 如果在任何时候你想要添加/移除一个新的驱动器到/从虚拟硬盘，你可以挂载一个新的驱动器，拷贝/mnt/vritual_hdd的内容，卸载卷，弹出你要移除的的驱动器并/或挂载你要包含的新驱动器。使用mhddfs命令挂载全部文件系统到Virtual_hdd下，这样就全部搞定了。 + +#### 我怎么卸载Virtual_hdd？ #### + +卸载virtual_hdd相当简单，就像下面这样 + + # umount /mnt/virtual_hdd + +![Unmount Virtual Filesystem](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Unmount-Virtual-Filesystem.png) + +*卸载虚拟文件系统* + +注意，是umount，而不是unmount，很多用户都输错了。 + +到现在为止全部结束了。我正在写另外一篇文章，你们一定喜欢读的。到那时，请保持连线。请在下面的评论中给我们提供有用的反馈吧。请为我们点赞并分享，帮助我们扩散。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/combine-partitions-into-one-in-linux-using-mhddfs/ + +作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] +译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/understanding-raid-setup-in-linux/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/mount-filesystem-in-linux/ +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-2324-1.html diff --git a/translated/share/20150824 Watch These Kids Having Fun With Linux Terminal In Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150824 Watch These Kids Having Fun With Linux Terminal In Ubuntu.md similarity index 68% rename from translated/share/20150824 Watch These Kids Having Fun With Linux Terminal In Ubuntu.md rename to published/201509/20150824 Watch These Kids Having Fun With Linux Terminal In Ubuntu.md index 3d0efff7b5..e7e2d88e03 100644 --- a/translated/share/20150824 Watch These Kids Having Fun With Linux Terminal In Ubuntu.md +++ b/published/201509/20150824 Watch These Kids Having Fun With Linux Terminal In Ubuntu.md @@ -1,13 +1,10 @@ -看这些孩子在Ubuntu的Linux终端下玩耍 +看这些孩子在 Ubuntu 的 Linux 终端下玩耍 ================================================================================ -我发现了一个孩子们在他们的计算机教室里玩得很开心的视频。我不知道他们在哪里，但我猜测是在印度尼西亚或者马来西亚。 - -注：youtube 视频 - +我发现了一个孩子们在他们的计算机教室里玩得很开心的视频。我不知道他们在哪里，但我猜测是在印度尼西亚或者马来西亚。视频请自行搭梯子： http://www.youtube.com/z8taQPomp0Y ### 在Linux终端下面跑火车 ### -这里没有魔术。只是一个叫做“sl”的命令行工具。我假定它是在把ls打错的情况下为了好玩而开发的。如果你曾经在Linux的命令行下工作，你会知道ls是一个最常使用的一个命令，也许也是一个最经常打错的命令。 +这里没有魔术。只是一个叫做“sl”的命令行工具。我想它是在把ls打错的情况下为了好玩而开发的。如果你曾经在Linux的命令行下工作，你会知道ls是一个最常使用的一个命令，也许也是一个最经常打错的命令。 如果你想从这个终端下的火车获得一些乐趣，你可以使用下面的命令安装它。 @@ -30,7 +27,7 @@ via: http://itsfoss.com/ubuntu-terminal-train/ 作者：[Abhishek][a] 译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/published/201509/20150826 Five Super Cool Open Source Games.md b/published/201509/20150826 Five Super Cool Open Source Games.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..418d6248a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150826 Five Super Cool Open Source Games.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +五大超酷的开源游戏 +================================================================================ + +在2014年和2015年，Linux 涌入了一堆流行的付费游戏，例如备受欢迎的无主之地（Borderlands）、巫师（Witcher）、死亡岛（Dead Island） 和 CS 系列游戏。虽然这是令人激动的消息，但玩家有这个支出预算吗？付费游戏很好，但更好的是由了解玩家喜好的开发者开发的免费的替代品。 + +前段时间，我偶然看到了一个三年前发布的 YouTube 视频，标题非常的有正能量 [5个不算糟糕的开源游戏][1]。虽然视频表扬了一些开源游戏，我还是更喜欢用一个更加热情的方式来切入这个话题，至少如标题所说。所以，下面是我的一份五大超酷开源游戏的清单。 + +### Tux Racer ### + +![Tux Racer](http://fossforce.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/tuxracer-550x413.jpg) + +*Tux Racer* + +[《Tux Racer》][2]是这份清单上的第一个游戏，因为我对这个游戏很熟悉。最近，我的兄弟和我为了参加[玩电脑的孩子们][4]项目，在[去墨西哥的路途中][3]，Tux Racer 是孩子和教师都喜欢玩的游戏之一。在这个游戏中，玩家使用 Linux 吉祥物——企鹅 Tux——在下山雪道上以计时赛的方式进行比赛。玩家们不断挑战他们自己的最佳纪录。目前还没有多玩家版本，但这是有可能改变的。它适用于 Linux、OS X、Windows 和 Android。 + +### Warsow ### + +![Warsow](http://fossforce.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/warsow-550x413.jpg) + +*Warsow* + +[《Warsow》][5]网站介绍道：“设定是有未来感的卡通世界，Warsow 是个完全开放的适用于 Windows、Linux 和 Mac OS X平台的快节奏第一人称射击游戏（FPS）。Warsow 是跨网络的尊重和体育精神的的艺术。（Warsow is the Art of Respect and Sportsmanship Over the Web. 大写回文字母组成 Warsow。）” 我很不情愿的把 FPS 类放到了这个列表中，因为很多人玩过这类的游戏，但是我的确被 Warsow 打动了。它对很多动作进行了优先级排序，游戏节奏很快，一开始就有八个武器。卡通化的风格让玩的过程变得没有那么严肃，更加的休闲，非常适合和亲友一同玩。然而，它却以充满竞争的游戏自居，并且当我体验这个游戏时，我发现周围确实有一些专家级的玩家。它适用于 Linux、Windows 和 OS X。 + +### M.A.R.S——一个荒诞的射击游戏 ### + +![M.A.R.S. - A ridiculous shooter](http://fossforce.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/MARS-screenshot-550x344.jpg) + +*M.A.R.S.——一个荒诞的射击游戏* + +[《M.A.R.S——一个荒诞的射击游戏》][6]之所以吸引人是因为它充满活力的色彩和画风。支持两个玩家使用同一个键盘，而一个在线多玩家版本目前正在开发中——这意味着想要和朋友们一起玩暂时还要等等。不论如何，它是个可以使用几个不同飞船和武器的有趣的太空射击游戏。飞船的形状不同，从普通的枪、激光、散射枪到更有趣的武器（随机出来的飞船中有一个会对敌人发射泡泡，这为这款混乱的游戏增添了很多乐趣）。游戏有几种模式，比如标准模式和对方进行殊死搏斗以获得高分或先达到某个分数线，还有其他的模式，空间球（Spaceball）、坟坑（Grave-itation Pit）和保加农炮（Cannon Keep）。它适用于 Linux、Windows 和 OS X。 + +### Valyria Tear ### + +![Valyria Tear](http://fossforce.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/bronnan-jump-to-enemy-550x413.jpg) + +*Valyria Tear* + +[Valyria Tear][7] 类似近年来拥有众多粉丝的角色扮演游戏（RPG）。故事设定在奇幻游戏的通用年代，充满了骑士、王国和魔法，以及主要角色 Bronann。设计团队在这个世界的设计上做的非常棒，实现了玩家对这类游戏所有的期望：隐藏的宝藏、偶遇的怪物、非玩家操纵角色（NPC）的互动以及所有 RPG 不可或缺的——在低级别的怪物上刷经验直到可以面对大 BOSS。我在试玩的时候，时间不允许我太过深入到这个游戏故事中，但是感兴趣的人可以看 YouTube 上由 Yohann Ferriera 用户发的‘[Let’s Play][8]’系列视频。它适用于 Linux、Windows 和 OS X。 + +### SuperTuxKart ### + +![SuperTuxKart](http://fossforce.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/hacienda_tux_antarctica-550x293.jpg) + +*SuperTuxKart* + +最后一个同样好玩的游戏是 [SuperTuxKart][9]，一个效仿 Mario Kart（马里奥卡丁车）但丝毫不逊色的好游戏。它在2000年-2004年间开始以 Tux Kart 开发，但是在成品中有错误，结果开发就停止了几年。从2006年开始重新开发时起，它就一直在改进，直到四个月前0.9版首次发布。在游戏里，我们的老朋友 Tux 与马里奥和其他一些开源吉祥物一同开始。其中一个熟悉的面孔是 Suzanne，这是 Blender 的那只吉祥物猴子。画面很给力，游戏很流畅。虽然在线游戏还在计划阶段，但是分屏多玩家游戏是可以的。一个电脑最多可以供四个玩家同时玩。它适用于 Linux、Windows、OS X、AmigaOS 4、AROS 和 MorphOS。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://fossforce.com/2015/08/five-super-cool-open-source-games/ + +作者：Hunter Banks +译者：[H-mudcup](https://github.com/H-mudcup) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BEKVl-XtOP8 +[2]:http://tuxracer.sourceforge.net/download.html +[3]:http://fossforce.com/2015/07/banks-family-values-texas-linux-fest/ +[4]:http://www.kidsoncomputers.org/an-amazing-week-in-oaxaca +[5]:https://www.warsow.net/download +[6]:http://mars-game.sourceforge.net/ +[7]:http://valyriatear.blogspot.com/ +[8]:https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCQ5KrSk9EqcT_JixWY2RyMA +[9]:http://supertuxkart.sourceforge.net/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150826 How to set up a system status page of your infrastructure.md b/published/201509/20150826 How to set up a system status page of your infrastructure.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7725538ddd --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150826 How to set up a system status page of your infrastructure.md @@ -0,0 +1,295 @@ +如何为你的平台部署一个公开的系统状态页 +================================================================================ + +如果你是一个系统管理员，负责关键的 IT 基础设置或公司的服务，你将明白有效的沟通在日常任务中的重要性。假设你的线上存储服务器故障了。你希望团队所有人达成共识你好尽快的解决问题。当你忙来忙去时，你不会想一半的人问你为什么他们不能访问他们的文档。当一个维护计划快到时间了你想在计划前提醒相关人员，这样避免了不必要的开销。 + +这一切的要求或多或少改进了你、你的团队、和你服务的用户之间沟通渠道。一个实现它的方法是维护一个集中的系统状态页面，报告和记录故障停机详情、进度更新和维护计划等。这样，在故障期间你避免了不必要的打扰，也可以提醒一些相关方，以及加入一些可选的状态更新。 + +有一个不错的**开源, 自承载系统状态页解决方案**叫做 [Cachet][1]。在这个教程，我将要描述如何用 Cachet 部署一个自承载系统状态页面。 + +### Cachet 特性 ### + +在详细的配置 Cachet 之前，让我简单的介绍一下它的主要特性。 + +- **全 JSON API**：Cachet API 可以让你使用任意的外部程序或脚本（例如，uptime 脚本）连接到 Cachet 来自动报告突发事件或更新状态。 +- **认证**：Cachet 支持基础认证和 JSON API 的 API 令牌，所以只有认证用户可以更新状态页面。 +- **衡量系统**：这通常用来展现随着时间推移的自定义数据（例如，服务器负载或者响应时间）。 +- **通知**：可选地，你可以给任一注册了状态页面的人发送突发事件的提示邮件。 +- **多语言**：状态页被翻译为11种不同的语言。 +- **双因子认证**：这允许你使用 Google 的双因子认证来提升 Cachet 管理账户的安全性。 +- **跨数据库支持**：你可以选择 MySQL，SQLite，Redis，APC 和 PostgreSQL 作为后端存储。 + +剩下的教程，我会说明如何在 Linux 上安装配置 Cachet。 + +### 第一步：下载和安装 Cachet ### + +Cachet 需要一个 web 服务器和一个后端数据库来运转。在这个教程中，我将使用 LAMP 架构。以下是一些特定发行版上安装 Cachet 和 LAMP 架构的指令。 + +#### Debian，Ubuntu 或者 Linux Mint #### + + $ sudo apt-get install curl git apache2 mysql-server mysql-client php5 php5-mysql + $ sudo git clone https://github.com/cachethq/Cachet.git /var/www/cachet + $ cd /var/www/cachet + $ sudo git checkout v1.1.1 + $ sudo chown -R www-data:www-data . + +在基于 Debian 的系统上设置 LAMP 架构的更多细节，参考这个[教程][2]。 + +#### Fedora， CentOS 或 RHEL #### + +在基于 Red Hat 系统上，你首先需要[设置 REMI 软件库][3]（以满足 PHP 的版本需求）。然后执行下面命令。 + + $ sudo yum install curl git httpd mariadb-server + $ sudo yum --enablerepo=remi-php56 install php php-mysql php-mbstring + $ sudo git clone https://github.com/cachethq/Cachet.git /var/www/cachet + $ cd /var/www/cachet + $ sudo git checkout v1.1.1 + $ sudo chown -R apache:apache . + $ sudo firewall-cmd --permanent --zone=public --add-service=http + $ sudo firewall-cmd --reload + $ sudo systemctl enable httpd.service; sudo systemctl start httpd.service + $ sudo systemctl enable mariadb.service; sudo systemctl start mariadb.service + +在基于 Red Hat 系统上设置 LAMP 的更多细节，参考这个[教程][4]。 + +### 配置 Cachet 的后端数据库### + +下一步是配置后端数据库。 + +登录到 MySQL/MariaDB 服务，然后创建一个空的数据库称为‘cachet’。 + + $ sudo mysql -uroot -p + +---------- + + mysql> create database cachet; + mysql> quit + +现在用一个示例配置文件创建一个 Cachet 配置文件。 + + $ cd /var/www/cachet + $ sudo mv .env.example .env + +在 .env 文件里，填写你自己设置的数据库信息（例如，DB\_\*）。其他的字段先不改变。 + + APP_ENV=production + APP_DEBUG=false + APP_URL=http://localhost + APP_KEY=SomeRandomString + + DB_DRIVER=mysql + DB_HOST=localhost + DB_DATABASE=cachet + DB_USERNAME=root + DB_PASSWORD= + + CACHE_DRIVER=apc + SESSION_DRIVER=apc + QUEUE_DRIVER=database + + MAIL_DRIVER=smtp + MAIL_HOST=mailtrap.io + MAIL_PORT=2525 + MAIL_USERNAME=null + MAIL_PASSWORD=null + MAIL_ADDRESS=null + MAIL_NAME=null + + REDIS_HOST=null + REDIS_DATABASE=null + REDIS_PORT=null + +### 第三步：安装 PHP 依赖和执行数据库迁移 ### + +下面，我们将要安装必要的PHP依赖包。我们会使用 composer 来安装。如果你的系统还没有安装 composer，先安装它： + + $ curl -sS https://getcomposer.org/installer | sudo php -- --install-dir=/usr/local/bin --filename=composer + +现在开始用 composer 安装 PHP 依赖包。 + + $ cd /var/www/cachet + $ sudo composer install --no-dev -o + +下面执行一次性的数据库迁移。这一步会在我们之前创建的数据库里面创建那些所需的表。 + + $ sudo php artisan migrate + +假设在 /var/www/cachet/.env 的数据库配置无误，数据库迁移应该像下面显示一样成功完成。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5814/20235620184_54048676b0_c.jpg) + +下面，创建一个密钥，它将用来加密进入 Cachet 的数据。 + + $ sudo php artisan key:generate + $ sudo php artisan config:cache + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5717/20831952096_7105c9fdc7_c.jpg) + +生成的应用密钥将自动添加到你的 .env 文件 APP\_KEY 变量中。你不需要自己编辑 .env。 + +### 第四步：配置 Apache HTTP 服务 ### + +现在到了配置运行 Cachet 的 web 服务的时候了。我们使用 Apache HTTP 服务器，为 Cachet 创建一个新的[虚拟主机][5]，如下： + +#### Debian，Ubuntu 或 Linux Mint #### + + $ sudo vi /etc/apache2/sites-available/cachet.conf + +---------- + + + ServerName cachethost + ServerAlias cachethost + DocumentRoot "/var/www/cachet/public" + + Require all granted + Options Indexes FollowSymLinks + AllowOverride All + Order allow,deny + Allow from all + + + +启用新虚拟主机和 mod_rewrite： + + $ sudo a2ensite cachet.conf + $ sudo a2enmod rewrite + $ sudo service apache2 restart + +#### Fedora， CentOS 或 RHEL #### + +在基于 Red Hat 系统上，创建一个虚拟主机文件，如下： + + $ sudo vi /etc/httpd/conf.d/cachet.conf + +---------- + + + ServerName cachethost + ServerAlias cachethost + DocumentRoot "/var/www/cachet/public" + + Require all granted + Options Indexes FollowSymLinks + AllowOverride All + Order allow,deny + Allow from all + + + +现在重载 Apache 配置： + + $ sudo systemctl reload httpd.service + +### 第五步：配置 /etc/hosts 来测试 Cachet ### + +这时候，初始的 Cachet 状态页面应该启动运行了，现在测试一下。 + +由于 Cachet 被配置为Apache HTTP 服务的虚拟主机，我们需要调整你的客户机的 /etc/hosts 来访问他。你将从这个客户端电脑访问 Cachet 页面。（LCTT 译注：如果你给了这个页面一个正式的主机地址，则不需要这一步。） + +打开 /etc/hosts，加入如下行： + + $ sudo vi /etc/hosts + +---------- + + cachethost + +上面名为“cachethost”必须匹配 Cachet 的 Apache 虚拟主机文件的 ServerName。 + +### 测试 Cachet 状态页面 ### + +现在你准备好访问 Cachet 状态页面。在你浏览器地址栏输入 http://cachethost。你将被转到如下的 Cachet 状态页的初始化设置页面。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5745/20858228815_405fce1301_c.jpg) + +选择 cache/session 驱动。这里 cache 和 session 驱动两个都选“File”。 + +下一步，输入关于状态页面的基本信息（例如，站点名称、域名、时区和语言），以及管理员认证账户。 + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/611/20237229693_c22014e4fd_c.jpg) + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5707/20858228875_b056c9e1b4_c.jpg) + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5653/20671482009_8629572886_c.jpg) + +你的状态页初始化就要完成了。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5692/20237229793_f6a48f379a_c.jpg) + +继续创建组件（你的系统单元）、事件或者任意你要做的维护计划。 + +例如，增加一个组件： + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5672/20848624752_9d2e0a07be_c.jpg) + +增加一个维护计划： + +公共 Cachet 状态页就像这样： + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/577/20848624842_df68c0026d_c.jpg) + +集成了 SMTP，你可以在状态更新时发送邮件给订阅者。并且你可以使用 CSS 和 markdown 格式来完全自定义布局和状态页面。 + +### 结论 ### + +Cachet 是一个相当易于使用，自托管的状态页面软件。Cachet 一个高级特性是支持全 JSON API。使用它的 RESTful API，Cachet 可以轻松连接单独的监控后端（例如，[Nagios][6]），然后回馈给 Cachet 事件报告并自动更新状态。比起手工管理一个状态页它更快和有效率。 + +最后一句，我喜欢提及一个事。用 Cachet 设置一个漂亮的状态页面是很简单的，但要将这个软件用好并不像安装它那么容易。你需要完全保障所有 IT 团队习惯准确及时的更新状态页，从而建立公共信息的准确性。同时，你需要教用户去查看状态页面。最后，如果没有很好的填充数据，部署状态页面就没有意义，并且/或者没有一个人查看它。记住这个，尤其是当你考虑在你的工作环境中部署 Cachet 时。 + +### 故障排查 ### + +补充，万一你安装 Cachet 时遇到问题，这有一些有用的故障排查的技巧。 + +1. Cachet 页面没有加载任何东西，并且你看到如下报错。 + + production.ERROR: exception 'RuntimeException' with message 'No supported encrypter found. The cipher and / or key length are invalid.' in /var/www/cachet/bootstrap/cache/compiled.php:6695 + + **解决方案**：确保你创建了一个应用密钥，以及明确配置缓存如下所述。 + + $ cd /path/to/cachet + $ sudo php artisan key:generate + $ sudo php artisan config:cache + +2. 调用 composer 命令时有如下报错。 + + - danielstjules/stringy 1.10.0 requires ext-mbstring * -the requested PHP extension mbstring is missing from your system. + - laravel/framework v5.1.8 requires ext-mbstring * -the requested PHP extension mbstring is missing from your system. + - league/commonmark 0.10.0 requires ext-mbstring * -the requested PHP extension mbstring is missing from your system. + + **解决方案**：确保在你的系统上安装了必要的 PHP 扩展 mbstring ，并且兼容你的 PHP 版本。在基于 Red Hat 的系统上，由于我们从 REMI-56 库安装PHP，所以要从同一个库安装扩展。 + + $ sudo yum --enablerepo=remi-php56 install php-mbstring + +3. 你访问 Cachet 状态页面时得到一个白屏。HTTP 日志显示如下错误。 + + PHP Fatal error: Uncaught exception 'UnexpectedValueException' with message 'The stream or file "/var/www/cachet/storage/logs/laravel-2015-08-21.log" could not be opened: failed to open stream: Permission denied' in /var/www/cachet/bootstrap/cache/compiled.php:12851 + + **解决方案**：尝试如下命令。 + + $ cd /var/www/cachet + $ sudo php artisan cache:clear + $ sudo chmod -R 777 storage + $ sudo composer dump-autoload + + 如果上面的方法不起作用，试试禁止SELinux： + + $ sudo setenforce 0 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://xmodulo.com/setup-system-status-page.html + +作者：[Dan Nanni][a] +译者：[wyangsun](https://github.com/wyangsun) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://xmodulo.com/author/nanni +[1]:https://cachethq.io/ +[2]:http://xmodulo.com/install-lamp-stack-ubuntu-server.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-4192-1.html +[4]:https://linux.cn/article-5789-1.html +[5]:http://xmodulo.com/configure-virtual-hosts-apache-http-server.html +[6]:http://xmodulo.com/monitor-common-services-nagios.html diff --git a/published/201509/20150826 Mosh Shell--A SSH Based Client for Connecting Remote Unix or Linux Systems.md b/published/201509/20150826 Mosh Shell--A SSH Based Client for Connecting Remote Unix or Linux Systems.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2b5c37992d --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150826 Mosh Shell--A SSH Based Client for Connecting Remote Unix or Linux Systems.md @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +mosh：一个基于 SSH 用于连接远程 Unix/Linux 系统的工具 +================================================================================ +Mosh 表示移动 Shell（Mobile Shell），是一个用于从客户端跨互联网连接远程服务器的命令行工具。它能用于 SSH 连接，但是比 Secure Shell 功能更多。它是一个类似于 SSH 而带有更多功能的应用。程序最初由 Keith Winstein 编写，用于类 Unix 的操作系统中，发布于GNU GPL v3协议下。 + +![Mosh Shell SSH Client](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Mosh-Shell-SSH-Client.png) + +*Mosh Shell SSH 客户端* + +#### Mosh的功能 #### + +- 它是一个支持漫游的远程终端程序。 +- 在所有主流的类 Unix 版本中可用，如 Linux、FreeBSD、Solaris、Mac OS X 和 Android。 +- 支持不稳定连接 +- 支持智能的本地回显 +- 支持用户输入的行编辑 +- 响应式设计及在 wifi、3G、长距离连接下的鲁棒性 +- 在 IP 改变后保持连接。它使用 UDP 代替 TCP（在 SSH 中使用），当连接被重置或者获得新的 IP 后 TCP 会超时，但是 UDP 仍然保持连接。 +- 在很长的时候之后恢复会话时仍然保持连接。 +- 没有网络延迟。立即显示用户输入和删除而没有延迟 +- 像 SSH 那样支持一些旧的方式登录。 +- 包丢失处理机制 + +### Linux 中 mosh 的安装 ### + +在 Debian、Ubuntu 和 Mint 类似的系统中，你可以很容易地用 [apt-get 包管理器][1]安装。 + + # apt-get update + # apt-get install mosh + +在基于 RHEL/CentOS/Fedora 的系统中，要使用 [yum 包管理器][3]安装 mosh，你需要打开第三方的 [EPEL][2]。 + + # yum update + # yum install mosh + +在 Fedora 22+的版本中，你需要使用 [dnf 包管理器][4]来安装 mosh。 + + # dnf install mosh + +### 我该如何使用 mosh？ ### + +1、 让我们尝试使用 mosh 登录远程 Linux 服务器。 + + $ mosh root@192.168.0.150 + +![Mosh Shell Remote Connection](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Mosh-Shell-Remote-Connection.png) + +*mosh远程连接* + +**注意**：你有没有看到一个连接错误，因为我在 CentOS 7中还有打开这个端口。一个快速但是我并不建议的解决方法是： + + # systemctl stop firewalld [在远程服务器上] + +更好的方法是打开一个端口并更新防火墙规则。接着用 mosh 连接到预定义的端口中。至于更深入的细节，也许你会对下面的文章感兴趣。 + +- [如何配置 Firewalld][5] + +2、 让我们假设把默认的 22 端口改到 70，这时使用 -p 选项来使用自定义端口。 + + $ mosh -p 70 root@192.168.0.150 + +3、 检查 mosh 的版本 + + $ mosh --version + +![Check Mosh Version](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Check-Mosh-Version.png) + +*检查mosh版本* + +4、 你可以输入`exit`来退出 mosh 会话。 + + $ exit + +5、 mosh 支持很多选项，你可以用下面的方法看到： + + $ mosh --help + +![Mosh Shell Options](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Mosh-Shell-Options.png) + +*Mosh 选项* + +#### mosh 的优缺点 #### + +- mosh 有额外的需求，比如需要允许 UDP 直接连接，这在 SSH 不需要。 +- 动态分配的端口范围是 60000-61000。第一个打开的端口是分配好的。每个连接都需要一个端口。 +- 默认的端口分配是一个严重的安全问题，尤其是在生产环境中。 +- 支持 IPv6 连接，但是不支持 IPv6 漫游。 +- 不支持回滚 +- 不支持 X11 转发 +- 不支持 ssh-agent 转发 + +### 总结 ### + +mosh是一款在大多数linux发行版的仓库中可以下载的一款小工具。虽然它有一些差异尤其是安全问题和额外的需求，它的功能，比如漫游后保持连接是一个加分点。我的建议是任何一个使用ssh的linux用户都应该试试这个程序，mosh值得一试。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/install-mosh-shell-ssh-client-in-linux/ + +作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/useful-basic-commands-of-apt-get-and-apt-cache-for-package-management/ +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-2324-1.html +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-linux-yum-yellowdog-updater-modified-commands-for-package-mangement/ +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/dnf-commands-for-fedora-rpm-package-management/ +[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/configure-firewalld-in-centos-7/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150827 Xtreme Download Manager Updated With Fresh GUI.md b/published/201509/20150827 Xtreme Download Manager Updated With Fresh GUI.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bd55b6fb66 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150827 Xtreme Download Manager Updated With Fresh GUI.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +Xtreme 下载管理器升级带来全新用户界面 +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Xtreme-Download-Manager-Linux.jpg) + +[Xtreme 下载管理器][1], 毫无疑问是[Linux界最好的下载管理器][2]之一 , 它的新版本名叫 XDM 2015 ，这次的新版本给我们带来了全新的外观体验！ + +Xtreme 下载管理器，也被称作 XDM 或 XDMAN，它是一个跨平台的下载管理器，可以用于 Linux、Windows 和 Mac OS X 系统之上。同时它兼容于主流的浏览器，如 Chrome, Firefox, Safari 等，因此当你从浏览器下载东西的时候可以直接使用 XDM 下载。 + +当你的网络连接超慢并且需要管理下载文件的时候，像 XDM 这种软件可以帮到你大忙。例如说你在一个慢的要死的网络速度下下载一个超大文件，或者你想要暂停和恢复下载的话， XDM 可以帮助你。 + +XDM 的主要功能： + +- 暂停和恢复下载 +- [从 YouTube 下载视频][3]，其他视频网站同样适用 +- 强制聚合 +- 下载加速 +- 计划下载 +- 下载限速 +- 与浏览器整合 +- 支持代理服务器 + +下面你可以看到 XDM 新旧版本之间的差别。 + +![Old XDM](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Xtreme-Download-Manager-700x400_c.jpg) + +*老版本XDM* + +![New XDM](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Xtreme_Download_Manager.png) + +*新版本XDM* + +### 在基于 Ubuntu 的 Linux 发行版上安装 Xtreme下载管理器 ### + +感谢 Noobslab 提供的 PPA，你可以使用以下命令来安装 Xtreme 下载管理器。虽然 XDM 依赖 Java，但是托 PPA 的福，你不需要对其进行单独的安装。 + + sudo add-apt-repository ppa:noobslab/apps + sudo apt-get update + sudo apt-get install xdman + +以上的 PPA 可以在 Ubuntu 或者其他基于 Ubuntu 的发行版上使用，如 Linux Mint, elementary OS, Linux Lite 等。 + +#### 删除 XDM #### + +如果你是使用 PPA 安装的 XDM ，可以通过以下命令将其删除： + + sudo apt-get remove xdman + sudo add-apt-repository --remove ppa:noobslab/apps + +对于其他Linux发行版，可以通过以下连接下载： + +- [下载 Xtreme 下载管理器][4] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/xtreme-download-manager-install/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[mr-ping](https://github.com/mr-ping) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://xdman.sourceforge.net/ +[2]:http://itsfoss.com/4-best-download-managers-for-linux/ +[3]:http://itsfoss.com/download-youtube-videos-ubuntu/ +[4]:http://xdman.sourceforge.net/download.html + diff --git a/published/201509/20150901 How to Defragment Linux Systems.md b/published/201509/20150901 How to Defragment Linux Systems.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4c14b5fc5f --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150901 How to Defragment Linux Systems.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +如何在 Linux 中整理磁盘碎片 +================================================================================ + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/defragment-linux-featured.png) + +有一神话是 linux 的磁盘从来不需要整理碎片。在大多数情况下这是真的，大多数因为是使用的是优秀的日志系统（ext2、3、4等等）来处理文件系统。然而，在一些特殊情况下，碎片仍旧会产生。如果正巧发生在你身上，解决方法很简单。 + +### 什么是磁盘碎片 ### + +文件系统会按块更新文件，如果这些块没有连成一整块而是分布在磁盘的各个角落中时，就会形成磁盘碎片。这对于 FAT 和 FAT32 文件系统而言是这样的。在 NTFS 中这种情况有所减轻，但在 Linux（extX）中却几乎不会发生。下面是原因： + +在像 FAT 和 FAT32 这类文件系统中，文件紧挨着写入到磁盘中。文件之间没有空间来用于增长或者更新： + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/defragment-linux-fragmented.png) + +NTFS 中在文件之间保留了一些空间，因此有空间进行增长。但因块之间的空间是有限的，碎片也会随着时间出现。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/defragment-linux-ntfs.png) + +Linux 的日志型文件系统采用了一个不同的方案。与文件相互挨着不同，每个文件分布在磁盘的各处，每个文件之间留下了大量的剩余空间。这就给文件更新和增长留下了很大的空间，碎片很少会发生。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/defragment-linux-journal.png) + +此外，碎片一旦出现了，大多数 Linux 文件系统会尝试将文件和块重新连续起来。 + +### Linux 中的磁盘整理 ### + +除非你用的是一个很小的硬盘或者空间不够了，不然 Linux 很少会需要磁盘整理。一些可能需要磁盘整理的情况包括： + +- 如果你编辑的是大型视频文件或者 RAW 照片，但磁盘空间有限 +- 如果你使用一个老式硬件，如旧笔记本，你的硬盘会很小 +- 如果你的磁盘开始满了（大约使用了85%） +- 如果你的家目录中有许多小分区 + +最好的解决方案是购买一个大硬盘。如果不可能，磁盘碎片整理就很有用了。 + +### 如何检查碎片 ### + +`fsck` 命令会为你做这个，换句话说，如果你可以在 LiveCD 中运行它，那么就可以用于**所有卸载的分区**。 + +这一点很重要：**在已经挂载的分区中运行 fsck 将会严重危害到你的数据和磁盘**。 + +你已经被警告过了。开始之前，先做一个完整的备份。 + +**免责声明**： 本文的作者与本站将不会对您的文件、数据、系统或者其他损害负责。你需要自己承担风险。如果你继续，你需要接受并了解这点。 + +你应该启动到一个 live 会话中（如使用安装磁盘，系统救援CD等）并在你**卸载**的分区上运行 `fsck` 。要检查是否有任何问题，请在使用 root 权限运行下面的命令： + + fsck -fn [/path/to/your/partition] + +您可以运行以下命令找到分区的路径 + + sudo fdisk -l + +有一个在已挂载的分区中运行 `fsck`（相对）安全的方法是使用`-n`开关。这会对分区进行只读文件系统检查，而不会写入任何东西。当然，这并不能保证十分安全，你应该在创建备份之后进行。在 ext2 中，运行 + + sudo fsck.ext2 -fn /path/to/your/partition + +这会产生大量的输出，大多数错误信息的原因是分区已经挂载了。最后会给出一个碎片相关的信息。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/defragment-linux-fsck.png) + +如果碎片率大于 20% 了，那么你应该开始整理你的磁盘碎片了。 + +### 如何简单地在 Linux 中整理碎片 ### + +你要做的是备份你**所有**的文件和数据到另外一块硬盘中（手动**复制**他们），格式化分区，然后重新复制回去（不要使用备份软件）。日志型文件系统会把它们作为新的文件，并将它们整齐地放置到磁盘中而不产生碎片。 + +要备份你的文件，运行 + + cp -afv [/path/to/source/partition]/* [/path/to/destination/folder] + +记住星号（*）是很重要的。 + +注意：通常认为复制大文件或者大量文件，使用 `dd` 或许是最好的。这是一个非常底层的操作，它会复制一切，包含空闲的空间甚至是留下的垃圾。这不是我们想要的，因此这里最好使用 `cp`。 + +现在你只需要删除源文件。 + + sudo rm -rf [/path/to/source/partition]/* + +**可选**：你可以使用如下命令将空闲空间用零填充。也可以用格式化来达到这点，但是如果你并没有复制整个分区而仅仅是复制大文件（它通常会形成碎片）的话，就不应该使用格式化的方法了。 + + sudo dd if=/dev/zero of=[/path/to/source/partition]/temp-zero.txt + +等待它结束。你可以用 `pv` 来监测进度。 + + sudo apt-get install pv + sudo pv -tpreb | of=[/path/to/source/partition]/temp-zero.txt + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/defragment-linux-dd.png) + +这就完成了，只要删除这个用于填充的临时文件就行。 + + sudo rm [/path/to/source/partition]/temp-zero.txt + +待你清零了空闲空间（或者跳过了这步）。重新复制回文件，将第一个`cp`命令翻转一下： + + cp -afv [/path/to/original/destination/folder]/* [/path/to/original/source/partition] + +### 使用 e4defrag ### + +如果你想要简单的方法，安装 `e2fsprogs`， + + sudo apt-get install e2fsprogs + +用 root 权限在分区中运行 `e4defrag`。如果你不想或不能卸载该分区，你可以使用它的挂载点而不是路径。要整理整个系统的碎片，运行： + + sudo e4defrag / + +在挂载的情况下不保证成功（你也应该在它运行时不要使用你的系统），但是它比复制全部文件再重新复制回来简单多了。 + +### 总结 ### + +linux 系统中由于它的日志型文件系统有效的数据处理很少会出现碎片。如果你因任何原因产生了碎片，简单的方法是重新分配你的磁盘，如复制出去所有文件并复制回来，或者使用`e4defrag`。然而重要的是保证你数据的安全，因此在进行任何可能影响你全部或者大多数文件的操作之前，确保你的文件已经被备份到了另外一个安全的地方去了。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/defragment-linux/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150901 How to Install or Upgrade to Linux Kernel 4.2 in Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150901 How to Install or Upgrade to Linux Kernel 4.2 in Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3737b88438 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150901 How to Install or Upgrade to Linux Kernel 4.2 in Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +在 Ubuntu 中如何安装或升级 Linux 内核到4.2 +================================================================================ +![](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/linux-kernel-icon-tux.png) + +Linux 内核 4.2已经发布了。Linus Torvalds 在 [lkml.org][1] 上写到: + +> 通过这周这么小的变动，看来在最后一周 发布 4.2 版本应该不会有问题，当然还有几个修正，但是看起来也并不需要延迟一周。 +> 所以这就到了，而且 4.3 的合并窗口现已打开。我已经有了几个等待处理的合并请求，明天我开始处理它们，然后在适当的时候放出来。 +> 从 rc8 以来的简短日志很小，已经附加。这个补丁也很小... + +### 新内核 4.2 有哪些改进？: ### + +- 重写英特尔的x86汇编代码 +- 支持新的 ARM 板和 SoC +- 对 F2FS 的 per-file 加密 +- AMDGPU 的内核 DRM 驱动程序 +- 对 Radeon DRM 驱动的 VCE1 视频编码支持 +- 初步支持英特尔的 Broxton Atom SoC +- 支持 ARCv2 和 HS38 CPU 内核 +- 增加了队列自旋锁的支持 +- 许多其他的改进和驱动更新。 + +### 在 Ubuntu 中如何下载4.2内核 : ### + +此内核版本的二进制包可供下载链接如下： + +- [下载 4.2 内核(.DEB)][1] + +首先检查你的操作系统类型，32位（i386）的或64位(amd64)的，然后使用下面的方式依次下载并安装软件包： + +1. linux-headers-4.2.0-xxx_all.deb +1. linux-headers-4.2.0-xxx-generic_xxx_i386/amd64.deb +1. linux-image-4.2.0-xxx-generic_xxx_i386/amd64.deb + +安装内核后，在终端（(Ctrl+Alt+T)）运行`sudo update-grub`命令来更新 grub boot-loader。 + +如果你需要一个低延迟系统（例如用于录制音频），请下载并安装下面的包： + +1. linux-headers-4.2.0_xxx_all.deb +1. linux-headers-4.2.0-xxx-lowlatency_xxx_i386/amd64.deb +1. linux-image-4.2.0-xxx-lowlatency_xxx_i386/amd64.deb + +对于没有图形用户界面的 Ubuntu 服务器，你可以运行下面的命令通过 wget 来逐一抓下载，并通过 dpkg 来安装： + +对于64位的系统请运行: + + cd /tmp/ + + wget http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/v4.2-unstable/linux-headers-4.2.0-040200_4.2.0-040200.201508301530_all.deb + + wget http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/v4.2-unstable/linux-headers-4.2.0-040200-generic_4.2.0-040200.201508301530_amd64.deb + + wget http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/v4.2-unstable/linux-image-4.2.0-040200-generic_4.2.0-040200.201508301530_amd64.deb + + sudo dpkg -i linux-headers-4.2.0-*.deb linux-image-4.2.0-*.deb + +对于32位的系统,请运行: + + cd /tmp/ + + wget http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/v4.2-unstable/linux-headers-4.2.0-040200_4.2.0-040200.201508301530_all.deb + + wget http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/v4.2-unstable/linux-headers-4.2.0-040200-generic_4.2.0-040200.201508301530_i386.deb + + wget http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/v4.2-unstable/linux-image-4.2.0-040200-generic_4.2.0-040200.201508301530_i386.deb + + sudo dpkg -i linux-headers-4.2.0-*.deb linux-image-4.2.0-*.deb + +最后，重新启动计算机才能生效。 + +要恢复或删除旧的内核，请参阅[通过脚本安装内核][3]。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://ubuntuhandbook.org/index.php/2015/08/upgrade-kernel-4-2-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Ji m][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://ubuntuhandbook.org/index.php/about/ +[1]:https://lkml.org/lkml/2015/8/30/96 +[2]:http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/v4.2-unstable/ +[3]:http://ubuntuhandbook.org/index.php/2015/08/install-latest-kernel-script/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150901 How to automatically dim your screen on Linux.md b/published/201509/20150901 How to automatically dim your screen on Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1fcdc19d47 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150901 How to automatically dim your screen on Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +如何在 Linux 上自动调整屏幕亮度保护眼睛 +================================================================================ + +当你开始在计算机前花费大量时间的时候，问题自然开始显现。这健康吗？怎样才能舒缓我眼睛的压力呢？为什么光线灼烧着我？尽管解答这些问题的研究仍然在不断进行着，许多程序员已经采用了一些应用来改变他们的日常习惯，让他们的眼睛更健康点。在这些应用中，我发现了两个特别有趣的东西：Calise和Redshift。 + +### Calise ### + +处于时断时续的开发中，[Calise][1]的意思是“相机光感应器（Camera Light Sensor）”。换句话说，它是一个根据摄像头接收到的光强度计算屏幕最佳的背光级别的开源程序。更进一步地说，Calise可以基于你的地理坐标来考虑你所在地区的天气。我喜欢它是因为它兼容各个桌面，甚至非X系列。 + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/569/21016715646_6e1e95f066_o.jpg) + +它同时附带了命令行界面和图形界面，支持多用户配置，而且甚至可以导出数据为CSV。安装完后，你必须在见证奇迹前对它进行快速校正。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5770/21050571901_1e7b2d63ec_c.jpg) + +不怎么令人喜欢的是，如果你和我一样有被偷窥妄想症，在你的摄像头前面贴了一条胶带，那就会比较不幸了，这会大大影响Calise的精确度。除此之外，Calise还是个很棒的应用，值得我们关注和支持。正如我先前提到的，它在过去几年中经历了一段修修补补的艰难阶段，所以我真的希望这个项目继续开展下去。 + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/633/21032989702_9ae563db1e_o.png) + +### Redshift ### + +如果你想过要减少由屏幕导致的眼睛的压力，那么你很可能听过f.lux，它是一个免费的专有软件，用于根据一天中的时间来修改显示器的亮度和配色。然而，如果真的偏好于开源软件，那么一个可选方案就是：[Redshift][2]。灵感来自f.lux，Redshift也可以改变配色和亮度来加强你夜间坐在屏幕前的体验。启动时，你可以使用经度和纬度来配置地理坐标，然后就可以让它在托盘中运行了。Redshift将根据太阳的位置平滑地调整你的配色或者屏幕。在夜里，你可以看到屏幕的色温调向偏暖色，这会让你的眼睛少遭些罪。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5823/20420303684_2b6e917fee_b.jpg) + +和Calise一样，它提供了一个命令行界面，同时也提供了一个图形客户端。要快速启动Redshift，只需使用命令： + + $ redshift -l [LAT]:[LON] + +替换[LAT]:[LON]为你的维度和经度。 + +然而，它也可以通过gpsd模块来输入你的坐标。对于Arch Linux用户，我推荐你读一读这个[维基页面][3]。 + +### 尾声 ### + +总而言之，Linux用户没有理由不去保护自己的眼睛，Calise和Redshift两个都很棒。我真希望它们的开发能够继续下去，让它们获得应有的支持。当然，还有比这两个更多的程序可以满足保护眼睛和保持健康的目的，但是我感觉Calise和Redshift会是一个不错的开端。 + +如果你有一个经常用来舒缓眼睛的压力的喜欢的程序，请在下面的评论中留言吧。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://xmodulo.com/automatically-dim-your-screen-linux.html + +作者：[Adrien Brochard][a] +译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://xmodulo.com/author/adrien +[1]:http://calise.sourceforge.net/ +[2]:http://jonls.dk/redshift/ +[3]:https://wiki.archlinux.org/index.php/Redshift#Automatic_location_based_on_GPS diff --git a/published/201509/20150901 Install The Latest Linux Kernel in Ubuntu Easily via A Script.md b/published/201509/20150901 Install The Latest Linux Kernel in Ubuntu Easily via A Script.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a2e5f1e276 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150901 Install The Latest Linux Kernel in Ubuntu Easily via A Script.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +使用脚本便捷地在 Ubuntu 中安装最新 Linux 内核 +================================================================================ +![](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/linux-kernel-icon-tux.png) + +想要安装最新的Linux内核吗？一个简单的脚本就可以在Ubuntu系统中方便的完成这项工作。 + +Michael Murphy 写了一个脚本用来将最新的候选版、标准版、或者低延时版的内核安装到 Ubuntu 系统中。这个脚本会在询问一些问题后从 [Ubuntu 内核主线页面][1] 下载安装最新的 Linux 内核包。 + +### 通过脚本来安装、升级Linux内核: ### + +1. 点击这个 [github 页面][2] 右上角的 “Download Zip” 来下载该脚本。 + +2. 鼠标右键单击用户下载目录下的 Zip 文件，选择 “在此展开” 将其解压。 + +3. 右键点击解压后的文件夹，选择 “在终端中打开” 到此文件夹下。 + +![](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/open-terminal.jpg) + +此时将会打开一个终端，并且自动导航到目标文件夹下。如果你找不到 “在终端中打开” 选项的话，在 Ubuntu 软件中心搜索安装 `nautilus-open-terminal` ，然后重新登录系统即可（也可以再终端中运行 `nautilus -q` 来取代重新登录系统的操作）。 +4. 当进入终端后，运行以下命令来赋予脚本执行本次操作的权限。 + + chmod +x * + +最后，每当你想要安装或升级 Ubuntu 的 linux 内核时都可以运行此脚本。 + + ./* + +![](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/run-script.jpg) + +这里之所以使用 * 替代脚本名称是因为文件夹中只有它一个文件。 + +如果脚本运行成功，重启电脑即可。 + +### 恢复并且卸载新版内核 ### + +如果因为某些原因要恢复并且移除新版内核的话，请重启电脑，在 Grub 启动器的 **高级选项** 菜单下选择旧版内核来启动系统。 + +当系统启动后，参照下边章节继续执行。 + +### 如何移除旧的（或新的）内核: ### + +1. 从 Ubuntu 软件中心安装 Synaptic Package Manager。 + +2. 打开 Synaptic Package Manager 然后如下操作: + +- 点击 **Reload** 按钮，让想要被删除的新内核显示出来. +- 在左侧面板中选择 **Status -> Installed** ，让查找列表更清晰一些。 +- 在 Quick filter 输入框中输入 **linux-image-** 用于查询。 +- 选择一个内核镜像 “linux-image-x.xx.xx-generic” 然后将其标记为removal（或者Complete Removal） +- 最后，应用变更 + +![](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/remove-old-kernel1.jpg) + +重复以上操作直到移除所有你不需要的内核。注意，不要随意移除此刻正在运行的内核，你可以通过 `uname -r` 命令来查看运行的内核。 + +对于 Ubuntu 服务器来说，你可以一步步运行下面的命令： + + uname -r + + dpkg -l | grep linux-image- + + sudo apt-get autoremove KERNEL_IMAGE_NAME + +![](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/remove-kernel-terminal.jpg) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://ubuntuhandbook.org/index.php/2015/08/install-latest-kernel-script/ + +作者：[Ji m][a] +译者：[mr-ping](https://github.com/mr-ping) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://ubuntuhandbook.org/index.php/about/ +[1]:http://kernel.ubuntu.com/~kernel-ppa/mainline/ +[2]:https://gist.github.com/mmstick/8493727 + diff --git a/published/201509/20150901 Is Linux Right For You.md b/published/201509/20150901 Is Linux Right For You.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..af88b9bfee --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150901 Is Linux Right For You.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +Linux 系统是否适合于您？ +================================================================================ +> 并非人人都适合使用 Linux --对许多用户来说，Windows 或 OSX 会是更好的选择。 + +我喜欢使用 Linux 桌面系统，并不是因为软件的政治性质，也不是不喜欢其它操作系统。我喜欢 Linux 系统因为它能满足我的需求并且确实适合使用。 + +我的经验是，并非人人都适合切换至“Linux 的生活方式”。本文将帮助您通过分析使用 Linux 系统的利弊来供您自行判断使用 Linux 是否真正适合您。 + +### 什么时候更换系统？ ### + +当有充分的理由时，将系统切换到 Linux 系统是很有意义的。这对 Windows 用户将系统更换到 OSX 或类似的情况都同样适用。为让您的系统转变成功，您必须首先确定为什么要做这种转换。 + +对某些人来说，更换系统通常意味着他们不满于当前的系统操作平台。也许是最新的升级给了他们糟糕的用户体验，而他们也已准备好更换到别的系统，也许仅仅是因为对某个系统好奇。不管动机是什么，必须要有充分的理由支撑您做出更换操作系统的决定。如果没有一个充足的原因让您这样做，往往不会成功。 + +然而事事都有例外。如果您确实对 Linux 桌面非常感兴趣，或许可以选择一种折衷的方式。 + +### 放慢起步的脚步 ### + +第一次尝试运行 Linux 系统后，我看到就有人开始批判 Windows 安装过程的费时，完全是因为他们20分钟就用闪存安装好 Ubuntu 的良好体验。但是伙伴们，这并不只是一次测验。相反，我有如下建议： + +- 用一周的时间尝试在[虚拟机上运行 Linux 系统][1]。这意味着您将在该系统上执行所有的浏览器工作、邮箱操作和其它想要完成的任务。 +- 如果运行虚拟机资源消耗太大，您可以尝试用提供了[一些持久存储][2]的 USB 驱动器来运行 Linux，您的主操作系统将不受任何影响。与此同时，您仍可以运行 Linux 系统。 +- 运行 Linux 系统一周后，如果一切进展顺利，下一步您可以计算一下这周内登入 Windows 的次数。如果只是偶尔登录 Windows 系统，下一步就可以尝试运行 Windows 和 Linux 的[双系统][3]。对那些只运行了 Linux 系统的用户，可以考虑尝试将系统真正更换为 Linux 系统。 +- 在你完全删除 Windows 分区前，更应该购买一个新硬盘来安装 Linux 系统。这样有了充足的硬盘空间，您就可以使用双系统。如果必须要启动 Windows 系统做些事情的话，Windows 系统也是可以运行的。 + +### 使用 Linux 系统的好处是什么？ ### + +将系统更换到 Linux 有什么好处呢？一般而言，这种好处对大多数人来说可以归结到释放个性自由。在使用 Linux 系统的时候，如果您不喜欢某些设置，可以自行更改它们。同时使用 Linux 可以为用户节省大量的硬件升级开支和不必要的软件开支。另外，您不需再费力找寻已丢失的软件许可证密钥，而且如果您不喜欢即将发布的系统版本，大可轻松地更换到别的版本。 + +在 Linux 桌面方面可以选择的桌面种类是惊人的多，看起来对新手来说做这种选择非常困难。但是如果您发现了喜欢的一款 Linux 版本（Debian、Fedora、Arch等），最困难的工作其实已经完成了，您需要做的就是找到各版本的区别并选择出您最喜欢的系统版本环境。 + +如今我听到的最常见的抱怨之一是用户发现没有太多的软件能适用于 Linux 系统。然而，这并不是事实。尽管别的操作系统可能会提供更多软件，但是如今的 Linux 也已经提供了足够多应用程序满足您的各种需求，包括视频剪辑（家用和专业级）、摄影、办公管理软件、远程访问、音乐软件、等等等等。 + +### 使用 Linux 系统您会失去些什么？ ### + +虽然我喜欢使用 Linux，但我妻子的家庭办公依然依赖于 OS X。对于用 Linux 系统完成一些特定的任务她心满意足，但是她需要 OS X 来运行一些不支持 Linux 的软件。这是许多想要更换系统的用户会遇到的一个常见的问题。如果要更换系统，您需要考虑是否愿意失去一些关键的软件工具。 + +有时这个问题是因为软件的数据只能用该软件打开。别的情况下，是传统应用程序的工作流和功能并不适用于在 Linux 系统上可运行的软件。我自己并没有遇到过这类问题，但是我知道确实存在这些问题。许多 Linux 上的软件在其它操作系统上也都可以用。所以如果担心这类软件兼容问题，建议您先尝试在已有的系统上操作一下几款类似的应用程序。 + +更换成 Linux 系统后，另一件您可能会失去的是本地系统支持服务。人们通常会嘲笑这种愚蠢行径，但我知道，无数的新手在使用 Linux 时会发现解决 Linux 上各种问题的唯一资源就是来自网络另一端的陌生人提供的帮助。如果只是他们的 PC 遇到了一些问题，这将会比较麻烦。Windows 和 OS X 的用户已经习惯各城市遍布了支持他们操作系统的各项技术服务。 + +### 如何开启新旅程？ ### + +这里建议大家要记住最重要的就是总要有个回退方案。如果您将 Windows 10 从硬盘中擦除，您会发现重新安装它又会花费金钱。对那些从其它 Windows 发布版本升级的用户来说尤其会遇到这种情况。请接受这个建议，对新手来说使用闪存安装 Linux 或使用 Windows 和 Linux 双系统都是更值得提倡的做法。您也许会如鱼得水般使用 Linux系统，但是有了一份回退方案，您将高枕无忧。 + +相反，如果数周以来您一直依赖于使用双操作系统，但是已经准备好冒险去尝试一下单操作系统，那么就去做吧。格式化您的驱动器，重新安装您喜爱的 Linux 发行版。数年来我一直都是“全职” Linux 使用爱好者，这里可以确定地告诉您，使用 Linux 系统感觉棒极了。这种感觉会持续多久？我第一次的 Linux 系统使用经验还是来自早期的 Red Hat 系统，最终在2003年，我在自己的笔记本上整个安装了 Linux 系统。 + +Linux 爱好者们，你们什么时候开始使用 Linux 的？您在最初更换成 Linux 系统时是兴奋还是焦虑呢？欢迎点击评论分享你们的经验。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.datamation.com/open-source/is-linux-right-for-you.html + +作者：[Matt Hartley][a] +译者：[icybreaker](https://github.com/icybreaker) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.datamation.com/author/Matt-Hartley-3080.html +[1]:http://www.psychocats.net/ubuntu/virtualbox +[2]:http://www.howtogeek.com/howto/14912/create-a-persistent-bootable-ubuntu-usb-flash-drive/ +[3]:http://www.linuxandubuntu.com/home/dual-boot-ubuntu-15-04-14-10-and-windows-10-8-1-8-step-by-step-tutorial-with-screenshots diff --git a/published/201509/20150901 Setting Up High-Performance 'HHVM' and Nginx or Apache with MariaDB on Debian or Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150901 Setting Up High-Performance 'HHVM' and Nginx or Apache with MariaDB on Debian or Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5682e18a84 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150901 Setting Up High-Performance 'HHVM' and Nginx or Apache with MariaDB on Debian or Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,182 @@ +在 Ubuntu 上配置高性能的 HHVM 环境 +================================================================================ + +HHVM全称为 HipHop Virtual Machine，它是一个开源虚拟机，用来运行由 Hack(一种编程语言)和 PHP 开发应用。HHVM 在保证了 PHP 程序员最关注的高灵活性的要求下，通过使用最新的编译方式来取得了非凡的性能。到目前为止，相对于 PHP + [APC (Alternative PHP Cache)][1] ，HHVM 为 FaceBook 在 HTTP 请求的吞吐量上提高了9倍的性能，在内存的占用上，减少了5倍左右的内存占用。 + +同时，HHVM 也可以与基于 FastCGI 的 Web 服务器（如 Nginx 或者 Apache ）协同工作。 + +![Install HHVM, Nginx and Apache with MariaDB](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-HHVM-Nginx-Apache-MariaDB.png) + +*安装 HHVM，Nginx和 Apache 还有 MariaDB* + +在本教程中，我们一起来配置 Nginx/Apache web 服务器、 数据库服务器 MariaDB 和 HHVM 。我们将使用 Ubuntu 15.04 (64 位)，因为 HHVM 只能运行在64位系统上。同时，该教程也适用于 Debian 和 Linux Mint。 + +### 第一步: 安装 Nginx 或者 Apache 服务器 ### + +1、首先，先进行一次系统的升级并更新软件仓库列表，命令如下 + + # apt-get update && apt-get upgrade + +![System Upgrade](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/System-Upgrade.png) + +*系统升级* + +2、 正如我之前说的，HHVM 能和 Nginx 和 Apache 进行集成。所以，究竟使用哪个服务器，这是你的自由，不过，我们会教你如何安装这两个服务器。 + +#### 安装 Nginx #### + +我们通过下面的命令安装 Nginx/Apache 服务器 + + # apt-get install nginx + +![Install Nginx Web Server](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Nginx-Web-Server.png) + +*安装 Nginx 服务器* + +#### 安装 Apache #### + + # apt-get install apache2 + +![Install Apache Web Server](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Apache-Web-Server.png) + +*安装 Apache 服务器* + +完成这一步，你能通过以下的链接看到 Nginx 或者 Apache 的默认页面 + + http://localhost + 或 + http://IP-Address + + +![Nginx Welcome Page](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Nginx-Welcome-Page.png) + +*Nginx 默认页面* + +![Apache Default Page](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Apache-Default-Page.png) + +*Apache 默认页面* + +### 第二步: 安装和配置 MariaDB ### + +3、 这一步，我们将通过如下命令安装 MariaDB，它是一个比 MySQL 性能更好的数据库 + + # apt-get install mariadb-client mariadb-server + +![Install MariaDB Database](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-MariaDB-Database.png) + +*安装 MariaDB* + +4、 在 MariaDB 成功安装之后，你可以启动它，并且设置 root 密码来保护数据库: + + + # systemctl start mysql + # mysql_secure_installation + +回答以下问题，只需要按下`y`或者 `n`并且回车。请确保你仔细的阅读过说明。 + + Enter current password for root (enter for none) = press enter + Set root password? [Y/n] = y + Remove anonymous users[y/n] = y + Disallow root login remotely[y/n] = y + Remove test database and access to it [y/n] = y + Reload privileges tables now[y/n] = y + +5、 在设置了密码之后，你就可以登录 MariaDB 了。 + + + # mysql -u root -p + + +### 第三步: 安装 HHVM ### + +6、 在此阶段，我们将安装 HHVM。我们需要添加 HHVM 的仓库到你的`sources.list`文件中，然后更新软件列表。 + + # wget -O - http://dl.hhvm.com/conf/hhvm.gpg.key | apt-key add - + # echo deb http://dl.hhvm.com/ubuntu DISTRIBUTION_VERSION main | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/hhvm.list + # apt-get update + +**重要**：不要忘记用你的 Ubuntu 发行版代号替换上述的 DISTRIBUTION_VERSION (比如：lucid, precise, trusty) 或者是 Debian 的 jessie 或者 wheezy。在 Linux Mint 中也是一样的，不过只支持 petra。 + +添加了 HHVM 仓库之后，你就可以轻松安装了。 + + # apt-get install -y hhvm + +安装之后，就可以启动它，但是它并没有做到开机启动。可以用如下命令做到开机启动。 + + # update-rc.d hhvm defaults + +### 第四步: 配置 Nginx/Apache 连接 HHVM ### + +7、 现在，nginx/apache 和 HHVM 都已经安装完成了，并且都独立运行起来了，所以我们需要对它们进行设置，来让它们互相关联。这个关键的步骤，就是需要告知 nginx/apache 将所有的 php 文件，都交给 HHVM 进行处理。 + +如果你用了 Nginx，请按照如下步骤： + +nginx 的配置文件在 /etc/nginx/sites-available/default， 并且这些配置文件会在 /usr/share/nginx/html 中寻找文件执行，不过，它不知道如何处理 PHP。 + +为了确保 Nginx 可以连接 HHVM，我们需要执行所带的如下脚本。它可以帮助我们正确的配置 Nginx，将 hhvm.conf 放到 上面提到的配置文件 nginx.conf 的头部。 + +这个脚本可以确保 Nginx 可以对 .hh 和 .php 的做正确的处理，并且将它们通过 fastcgi 发送给 HHVM。 + + # /usr/share/hhvm/install_fastcgi.sh + +![Configure Nginx for HHVM](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Configure-Nginx-for-HHVM.png) + +*配置 Nginx、HHVM* + +**重要**: 如果你使用的是 Apache，这里不需要进行配置。 + +8、 接下来，你需要使用 hhvm 来提供 php 的运行环境。 + + # /usr/bin/update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/php php /usr/bin/hhvm 60 + +以上步骤完成之后，你现在可以启动并且测试它了。 + + # systemctl start hhvm + +### 第五步: 测试 HHVM 和 Nginx/Apache ### + +9、 为了确认 hhvm 是否工作，你需要在 nginx/apache 的文档根目录下建立 hello.php。 + + # nano /usr/share/nginx/html/hello.php [对于 Nginx] + 或 + # nano /var/www/html/hello.php [对于 Nginx 和 Apache] + +在文件中添加如下代码: + + + +然后访问如下链接，确认自己能否看到 "hello world" + + http://localhost/info.php + 或 + http://IP-Address/info.php + +![HHVM Page](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/HHVM-Page.png) + +*HHVM 页面* + +如果 “HHVM” 的页面出现了，那就说明你成功了。 + +### 结论 ### + +以上的步骤都是非常简单的，希望你能觉得这是一篇有用的教程，如果你在以上的步骤中遇到了问题，给我们留一个评论，我们将全力解决。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/install-hhvm-and-nginx-apache-with-mariadb-on-debian-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Ravi Saive][a] +译者：[MikeCoder](https://github.com/MikeCoder) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/admin/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/install-apc-alternative-php-cache-in-rhel-centos-fedora/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150906 Do Simple Math In Ubuntu And elementary OS With NaSC.md b/published/201509/20150906 Do Simple Math In Ubuntu And elementary OS With NaSC.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5b3c20d03a --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150906 Do Simple Math In Ubuntu And elementary OS With NaSC.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +在 Ubuntu 和 Elementary OS 上使用 NaSC 进行简单数学运算 +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Make-Math-Simpler-with-NaSC.jpg) + +[NaSC][1]，Not a Soulver Clone 的缩写，是为 elementary 操作系统开发的第三方应用程序。正如名字暗示的那样，NaSC 的灵感来源于 [Soulver][2]，后者是像普通人一样进行数学计算的 OS X 应用。 + +Elementary OS 它自己本身借鉴了 OS X，也就不奇怪它的很多第三方应用灵感都来自于 OS X 应用。 + +回到 NaSC，“像普通人一样进行数学计算”到底是什么意思呢？事实上，它意味着正如你想的那样去书写。按照该应用程序的介绍： + +> “它能使你像平常那样进行计算。它允许你输入任何你想输入的，智能识别其中的数学部分并在右边面板打印出结果。然后你可以在后面的等式中使用这些结果，如果结果发生了改变，等式中使用的也会同样变化。” + +还不相信？让我们来看一个截图。 + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/NaSC.png) + +现在，你明白什么是 “像普通人一样做数学” 了吗？坦白地说，我并不是这类应用程序的粉丝，但对你们中的某些人可能会有用。让我们来看看怎么在 Elementary OS、Ubuntu 和 Linux Mint 上安装 NaSC。 + +### 在 Ubuntu、Elementary OS 和 Mint 上安装 NaSC ### + +安装 NaSC 有一个可用的 PPA。PPA 是 ‘每日’，意味着每日构建（意即，不稳定），但作为我的快速测试，并没什么影响。 + +打开一个终端并运行下面的命令： + + sudo apt-add-repository ppa:nasc-team/daily + sudo apt-get update + sudo apt-get install nasc + +这是 Ubuntu 15.04 中使用 NaSC 的一个截图： + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/NaSC-Ubuntu.png) + +如果你想卸载它，可以使用下面的命令： + + sudo apt-get remove nasc + sudo apt-add-repository --remove ppa:nasc-team/daily + +如果你试用了这个软件，要分享你的经验哦。除此之外，你也可以在第三方 Elementary OS 应用中体验 [Vocal podcast app for Linux][3]。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/math-ubuntu-nasc/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://parnold-x.github.io/nasc/ +[2]:http://www.acqualia.com/soulver/ +[3]:http://itsfoss.com/podcast-app-vocal-linux/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/201509/20150906 FISH--A smart and user-friendly command line shell for Linux.md b/published/201509/20150906 FISH--A smart and user-friendly command line shell for Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..de5d3946f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150906 FISH--A smart and user-friendly command line shell for Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +FISH：Linux 的一个智能易用的 Shell +================================================================================ + +FISH（friendly interactive shell）是一个用户友好的命令行 shell，主要是用来进行交互式使用。shell 就是一个用来执行其他程序的程序。 + +### FISH 特性 ### + +#### 自动建议 #### + +fish 会根据你的历史输入和补完来提供命令建议，就像一个网络浏览器一样。注意了，就是Netscape Navigator 4.0! + +![](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Fish-Auto-Suggestion.gif) + +#### 漂亮的VGA 色彩 #### + +fish 原生支持 term256， 它就是一个终端技术的艺术国度。 你将可以拥有一个难以置信的、256 色的shell 来使用。 + +#### 理智的脚本 #### + +fish 是完全可以通过脚本控制的，而且它的语法又是那么的简单、干净，而且一致。你甚至不需要去重写。 + +#### 基于 web 的配置 #### + +对于少数能使用图形计算机的幸运儿， 你们可以在网页上配置你们自己的色彩方案，以及查看函数、变量和历史记录。 + +#### 帮助手册补全 #### + +其它的 shell 支持可配置的补全， 但是只有 fish 可以通过自动转换你安装好的 man 手册来实现补全功能。 + +#### 开箱即用 #### + +fish 将会通过 tab 补全和语法高亮使你非常愉快的使用shell， 同时不需要太多的学习或者配置。 + +### 在ubuntu 15.04 上安装FISH + +打开终端，运行下列命令： + + sudo apt-add-repository ppa:fish-shell/release-2 + sudo apt-get update + sudo apt-get install fish + +###使用FISH### + +打开终端，运行下列命令来启动FISH： + + fish + +欢迎来到 fish，友好的交互式shell，输入指令 help 来了解怎么使用fish。 + +阅读[FISH 文档][1] ，掌握使用方法。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.ubuntugeek.com/fish-a-smart-and-user-friendly-command-line-shell-for-linux.html + +作者：[ruchi][a] +译者：[oska874](https://github.com/oska874) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.ubuntugeek.com/author/ubuntufix +[1]:http://fishshell.com/docs/current/index.html#introduction diff --git a/published/201509/20150906 How To Set Up Your FTP Server In Linux.md b/published/201509/20150906 How To Set Up Your FTP Server In Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..90a1895ff0 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150906 How To Set Up Your FTP Server In Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ +如何在 linux 中搭建 FTP 服务 +===================================================================== +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Setup-FTP-Server-in-Linux.jpg) + +在本教程中，我将会介绍如何搭建你自己的FTP服务。但是，首先我们应该来的学习一下FTP是什么。 + +###FTP是什么？### + +[FTP][1] 是文件传输协议（File Transfer Protocol）的缩写。顾名思义，FTP用于计算机之间通过网络进行文件传输。你可以通过FTP在计算机账户间进行文件传输，也可以在账户和桌面计算机之间传输文件，或者访问在线软件归档。但是，需要注意的是多数的FTP站点的使用率非常高，可能需要多次重连才能连接上。 + +FTP地址和HTTP地址（即网页地址）非常相似，只是FTP地址使用ftp://前缀而不是http:// + +###FTP服务器是什么？### + +通常，拥有FTP地址的计算机是专用于接收FTP连接请求的。一台专用于接收FTP连接请求的计算机即为FTP服务器或者FTP站点。 + +现在，我们来开始一个特别的冒险，我们将会搭建一个FTP服务用于和家人、朋友进行文件共享。在本教程，我们将以[vsftpd][2]作为ftp服务。 + +VSFTPD是一个自称为最安全的FTP服务端软件。事实上VSFTPD的前两个字母表示“非常安全的（very secure）”。该软件的构建绕开了FTP协议的漏洞。 + +尽管如此，你应该知道还有更安全的方法进行文件管理和传输，如：SFTP（使用[OpenSSH][3]）。FTP协议对于共享非敏感数据是非常有用和可靠的。 + +####使用 rpm 安装VSFTPD：#### + +你可以使用如下命令在命令行界面中快捷的安装VSFTPD： + + dnf -y install vsftpd + +####使用 deb 安装VSFTPD：#### + +你可以使用如下命令在命令行界面中快捷的安装VSFTPD： + + sudo apt-get install vsftpd + +####在Arch 中安装VSFTPD：#### + +你可以使用如下命令在命令行界面中快捷的安装VSFTPD： + + sudo apt-get install vsftpd + +####配置FTP服务#### + +多数的VSFTPD配置项都在/etc/vsftpd.conf配置文件中。这个文件本身已经有非常良好的文档说明了，因此，在本节中，我只强调一些你可能进行修改的重要选项。使用man页面查看所有可用的选项和基本的 文档说明： + + man vsftpd.conf + +根据文件系统层级标准，FTP共享文件默认位于/srv/ftp目录中。 + +**允许上传：** + +为了允许ftp用户可以修改文件系统的内容，如上传文件等，“write_enable”标志必须设置为 YES。 + + write_enable=YES + +**允许本地（系统）用户登录：** + +为了允许文件/etc/passwd中记录的用户可以登录ftp服务，“local_enable”标记必须设置为YES。 + + local_enable=YES + +**匿名用户登录** + +下面配置内容控制匿名用户是否允许登录： + + # 允许匿名用户登录 + anonymous_enable=YES + # 匿名登录不需要密码（可选） + no_anon_password=YES + # 匿名登录的最大传输速率，Bytes/second（可选） + anon_max_rate=30000 + # 匿名登录的目录（可选） + anon_root=/example/directory/ + +**根目录限制（Chroot Jail）** + +（ LCTT 译注：chroot jail是类unix系统中的一种安全机制，用于修改进程运行的根目录环境，限制该线程不能感知到其根目录树以外的其他目录结构和文件的存在。详情参看[chroot jail][4]） + +有时我们需要设置根目录（chroot）环境来禁止用户离开他们的家（home）目录。在配置文件中增加/修改下面配置开启根目录限制（Chroot Jail）: + + chroot_list_enable=YES + chroot_list_file=/etc/vsftpd.chroot_list + +“chroot\_list\_file”变量指定根目录限制所包含的文件/目录（ LCTT 译注：即用户只能访问这些文件/目录） + +最后你必须重启ftp服务，在命令行中输入以下命令： + + sudo systemctl restart vsftpd + +到此为止，你的ftp服务已经搭建完成并且启动了。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/set-ftp-server-linux/ + +作者：[alimiracle][a] +译者：[cvsher](https://github.com/cvsher) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/ali/ +[1]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol +[2]:https://security.appspot.com/vsftpd.html +[3]:http://www.openssh.com/ +[4]:https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chroot diff --git a/published/201509/20150906 How to Install DNSCrypt and Unbound in Arch Linux.md b/published/201509/20150906 How to Install DNSCrypt and Unbound in Arch Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c83f639e7e --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150906 How to Install DNSCrypt and Unbound in Arch Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ +如何在 Arch Linux 中安装 DNSCrypt 和 Unbound +================================================================================ + +**DNSCrypt** 是一个用于对 DNS 客户端和 DNS 解析器之间通信进行加密和验证的协议。它可以阻止 DNS 欺骗或中间人攻击。 DNSCrypt 可用于大多数的操作系统，包括 Linux，Windows，MacOSX ，Android 和 iOS。而在本教程中我使用的是内核为4.1的 archlinux。 + +**Unbound** 是用来解析收到的任意 DNS 查询的 DNS 缓存服务器。如果用户请求一个新的查询，unbound 会将其存储到缓存中，并且当用户再次请求相同的请求时，unbound 将采用已经保存的缓存。这将比第一次请求查询更快。 + +现在我将尝试安装“DNSCrypt”，以确保 DNS 的通信的安全，并用“Unbound”加速。 + +### 第一步 - 安装 yaourt ### + +Yaourt 是AUR（ARCH 用户仓库）的辅助工具之一，它可以使用户能够很容易地从 AUR 安装程序。 Yaourt 和 pacman 使用相同的语法，你可以使用 yaourt 安装该程序。下面是安装 yaourt 的简单方法： + +1、 用 nano 或者 vi 编辑 arch 仓库配置文件，存放在“/etc/pacman.conf”中。 + + $ nano /etc/pacman.conf + +2、 在 yaourt 仓库底部添加，粘贴下面的脚本： + + [archlinuxfr] + SigLevel = Never + Server = http://repo.archlinux.fr/$arch + +3、 用“Ctrl + x”，接着用“Y”保存。 + +4、 接着升级仓库数据库并用pacman安装yaourt： + + $ sudo pacman -Sy yaourt + +### 第二步 - 安装 DNSCrypt 和 Unbound ### + +DNSCrypt 和 unbound 就在 archlinux 仓库中，你可以用下面的 pacman 命令安装： + + $ sudo pacman -S dnscrypt-proxy unbound + +接着在安装的过程中按下“Y”。 + +### 第三步 - 安装 dnscrypt-autoinstall ### + +Dnscrypt-autoinstall 是一个在基于 Linux 的系统上自动安装和配置 DNSCrypt 的脚本。DNSCrypt 在 AUR 中，因此你必须使用“yaourt”命令来安装它。 + + $ yaourt -S dnscrypt-autoinstall + +注意 : + +-S = 这和 pacman -S 安装程序一样。 + +### 第四步 - 运行 dnscrypt-autoinstall ### + +用 root 权限运行“dnscrypt-autoinstall”来自动配置 DNSCrypt。 + + $ sudo dnscrypt-autoinstall + +下一步中按下“回车”，接着输入"Y"来选择你想使用的 DNS 提供者，我这里使用不带日志和 DNSSEC 的 DNSCrypt.eu。 + +![DNSCrypt autoinstall](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DNSCrypt-autoinstall.png) + +### 第五步 - 配置 DNSCrypt 和 Unbound ### + +1、 打开 dnscrypt 的“/etc/conf.d/dnscrypt-config” ，确认配置文件中“DNSCRYPT_LOCALIP”指向**本地ip**，“DNSCRYPT_LOCALPORT”根据你本人的意愿配置，我是用的是**40**端口。 + + $ nano /etc/conf.d/dnscrypt-config + + DNSCRYPT_LOCALIP=127.0.0.1 + DNSCRYPT_LOCALIP2=127.0.0.2 + DNSCRYPT_LOCALPORT=40 + +![DNSCrypt Configuration](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DNSCryptConfiguration.png) + +保存并退出。 + +2、 现在你用 nano 编辑器编辑“/etc/unbound/”下 unbound 的配置文件： + + $ nano /etc/unbound/unbound.conf + +3、 在脚本最后添加下面的行： + + do-not-query-localhost: no + forward-zone: + name: "." + forward-addr: 127.0.0.1@40 + +确保**forward-addr**和DNSCrypt中的“**DNSCRYPT_LOCALPORT**”一致。如你所见，用的是**40**端口。 + +![Unbound Configuration](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/UnboundConfiguration.png) + +接着保存并退出。 + +### 第六步 - 运行 DNSCrypt 和 Unbound，接着添加到开机启动中 ### + +请用 root 权限运行 DNSCrypt 和 unbound，你可以用 systemctl 命令来运行： + + $ sudo systemctl start dnscrypt-proxy unbound + +将服务添加到启动中。你可以运行“systemctl enable”： + + $ sudo systemctl enable dnscrypt-proxy unbound + +命令将会创建软链接到“/usr/lib/systemd/system/”目录的服务。 + +### 第七步 - 配置 resolv.conf 并重启所有服务 ### + +resolv.conf 是一个在 linux 中用于配置 DNS 解析器的文件。它是一个由管理员创建的纯文本，因此你必须用 root 权限编辑并让它不能被其他人修改。 + +用 nano 编辑器编辑： + + $ nano /etc/resolv.conf + +并添加本地IP “**127.0.0.1**”。现在用“chattr”命令使他只读： + + $ chattr +i /etc/resolv.conf + +注意： + +如果你想要重新编辑，用“chattr -i /etc/resolv.conf”加入写权限。 + +现在你需要重启 DNSCrypt 和 unbound 和网络； + + $ sudo systemctl restart dnscrypt-proxy unbound netctl + +如果你看到错误，检查配置文件。 + +### 测试 ### + +1、 测试 DNSCrypt + +你可以通过 https://dnsleaktest.com/ 来确认 DNSCrypt，点击“标准测试”或者“扩展测试”，然后等待程序运行结束。 + +现在你可以看到 DNSCrypt.eu 就已经与作为 DNS 提供商的 DNSCrypt 协同工作了。 + +![Testing DNSCrypt](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/TestingDNSCrypt.png) + + +2、 测试 Unbound + +现在你应该确保 unbound 可以正确地与“dig”和“drill”命令一起工作。 + +这是 dig 命令的结果： + + $ dig linoxide.com + +我们现在看下结果，“Query time”是“533 msec”： + + ;; Query time: 533 msec + ;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1) + ;; WHEN: Sun Aug 30 14:48:19 WIB 2015 + ;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 188 + +再次输入命令，我们看到“Query time”是“0 msec”。 + + ;; Query time: 0 msec + ;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1) + ;; WHEN: Sun Aug 30 14:51:05 WIB 2015 + ;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 188 + +![Unbound Test](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/UnboundTest.png) + +DNSCrypt 对 DNS 客户端和解析端之间的通讯加密做的很好，并且 Unbound 通过缓存让相同的请求在另一次请求同速度更快。 + +### 总结 ### + +DNSCrypt 是一个可以加密 DNS 客户端和 DNS 解析器之间的数据流的协议。 DNSCrypt 可以在不同的操作系统上运行，无论是移动端或桌面端。选择 DNS 提供商还包括一些重要的事情，应选择那些提供 DNSSEC 同时没有日志的。Unbound 可被用作 DNS 缓存，从而加快解析过程，因为 Unbound 将请求缓存，那么接下来客户端请求相同的查询时，unbound 将从缓存中取出保存的值。 DNSCrypt 和 Unbound 是针对安全性和速度的一个强大的组合。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/tools/install-dnscrypt-unbound-archlinux/ + +作者：[Arul][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/arulm/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150906 How to Install QGit Viewer in Ubuntu 14.04.md b/published/201509/20150906 How to Install QGit Viewer in Ubuntu 14.04.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e841c7f645 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150906 How to Install QGit Viewer in Ubuntu 14.04.md @@ -0,0 +1,114 @@ +如何在 Ubuntu 中安装 QGit 客户端 +================================================================================ + +QGit是一款由Marco Costalba用Qt和C++写的开源的图形界面 Git 客户端。它是一款可以在图形界面环境下更好地提供浏览版本历史、查看提交记录和文件补丁的客户端。它利用git命令行来执行并显示输出。它有一些常规的功能像浏览版本历史、比较、文件历史、文件标注、归档树。我们可以格式化并用选中的提交应用补丁，在两个或多个实例之间拖拽并提交等等。它允许我们用它内置的生成器来创建自定义的按钮去执行特定的命令。 + +这里有简单的几步在Ubuntu 14.04 LTS "Trusty"中编译并安装QGit客户端。 + +### 1. 安装 QT4 库 ### + +首先在ubuntu中运行QGit需要先安装QT4库。由于apt是ubuntu默认的包管理器，同时qt4也在官方的仓库中，因此我们直接用下面的apt-get命令来安装qt4。 + + $ sudo apt-get install qt4-default + +### 2. 下载QGit压缩包 ### + +安装完Qt4之后，我们要安装git，这样我们才能在QGit中克隆git仓库。运行下面的apt-get命令。 + + $ sudo apt-get install git + +现在，我们要使用下面的git命令来克隆QGit客户端的仓库。 + + $ git clone git://repo.or.cz/qgit4/redivivus.git + + Cloning into 'redivivus'... + remote: Counting objects: 7128, done. + remote: Compressing objects: 100% (2671/2671), done. + remote: Total 7128 (delta 5464), reused 5711 (delta 4438) + Receiving objects: 100% (7128/7128), 2.39 MiB | 470.00 KiB/s, done. + Resolving deltas: 100% (5464/5464), done. + Checking connectivity... done. + +### 3. 编译 QGit ### + +克隆之后，我们现在进入redivivus的目录，并创建我们编译需要的makefile文件。进入目录，运行下面的命令。 + + $ cd redivivus + +接下来，我们运行下面的命令从qmake项目文件（qgit.pro）来生成新的Makefile。 + + $ qmake qgit.pro + +生成Makefile之后，我们现在终于可以编译qgit的源代码并生成二进制。首先我们要安装make和g++包用于编译，因为这是一个用C++写的程序。 + + $ sudo apt-get install make g++ + +现在，我们要用make命令来编译代码了。 + + $ make + +### 4. 安装 QGit ### + +成功编译QGit的源码之后，我们就要在Ubuntu 14.04中安装它了，这样就可以在系统中执行它。因此我们将运行下面的命令。 + + $ sudo make install + + cd src/ && make -f Makefile install + make[1]: Entering directory `/home/arun/redivivus/src' + make -f Makefile.Release install + make[2]: Entering directory `/home/arun/redivivus/src' + install -m 755 -p "../bin/qgit" "/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/qt4/bin/qgit" + strip "/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/qt4/bin/qgit" + make[2]: Leaving directory `/home/arun/redivivus/src' + make[1]: Leaving directory `/home/arun/redivivus/src' + +接下来，我们需要从bin目录下复制qgit的二进制文件到/usr/bin/，这样我们就可以全局运行它了。 + + $ sudo cp bin/qgit /usr/bin/ + +### 5. 创建桌面文件 ### + +既然我们已经在ubuntu中成功安装了qgit，我们来创建一个桌面文件，这样QGit就可以在我们桌面环境中的菜单或者启动器中找到了。要做到这点，我们要在/usr/share/applications/创建一个新文件叫qgit.desktop。 + + $ sudo nano /usr/share/applications/qgit.desktop + +接下来复制下面的行到文件中。 + + [Desktop Entry] + Name=qgit + GenericName=git 图形界面 viewer + Exec=qgit + Icon=qgit + Type=Application + Comment=git 图形界面 viewer + Terminal=false + MimeType=inode/directory; + Categories=Qt;Development;RevisionControl; + +完成之后，保存并退出。 + +### 6. 运行 QGit 客户端 ### + +QGit安装完成之后，我们现在就可以从任何启动器或者程序菜单中启动它了。要在终端下面运行QGit，我们可以像下面那样。 + + $ qgit + +这会打开基于Qt4框架图形界面模式的QGit。 + +![QGit Viewer](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/qgit-viewer.png) + +### 总结 ### + +QGit是一个很棒的基于QT的git客户端。它可以在Linux、MAC OSX和 Microsoft Windows所有这三个平台中运行。它帮助我们很容易地浏览历史、版本、分支等等git仓库提供的信息。它减少了使用命令行的方式去执行诸如浏览版本、历史、比较功能的需求，并用图形化的方式来简化了这些任务。最新的qgit版本也在默认仓库中，你可以使用 **apt-get install qgit** 命令来安装。因此，QGit用它简单的图形界面使得我们的工作更加简单和快速。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/ubuntu-how-to/install-qgit-viewer-ubuntu-14-04/ + +作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/arunp/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150906 Install Qmmp 0.9.0 Winamp-like Audio Player in Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150906 Install Qmmp 0.9.0 Winamp-like Audio Player in Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1b5ca2ce43 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150906 Install Qmmp 0.9.0 Winamp-like Audio Player in Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +在 Ubuntu 上安装类 Winamp 的音频播放器 Qmmp 0.9.0 +================================================================================ +![](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/qmmp-icon-simple.png) + +Qmmp，一个基于 Qt 的音频播放器，与 Winamp 或 xmms 的用户界面类似，现在最新版本是0.9.0。PPA 已经在 Ubuntu 15.10，Ubuntu 15.04，Ubuntu 14.04，Ubuntu 12.04 和其衍生版本中已经更新了。 + +Qmmp 0.9.0 是一个较大的版本，有许多新的功能，有许多改进和新的转变。它添加了如下功能： + +- 音频-信道序列转换器; +- 9通道支持均衡器; +- 支持艺术家专辑标签; +- 异步排序; +- 不用修改 qmmp.pri 来禁用插件（仅在 qmake 中）功能 +- 记住播放列表滚动位置功能; +- 排除 cue 数据文件功能; +- 更改用户代理功能; +- 改变窗口标题功能; +- 禁用 gme 插件淡出的功能; +- 简单用户界面（QSUI）有以下变化： + - 增加了多列的支持; + - 增加了按艺术家专辑排序; + - 增加了按文件的修改日期进行排序; + - 增加了隐藏歌曲长度功能; + - 增加了“Rename List”的默认热键; + - 增加了“Save List”功能到标签菜单; + - 增加了复位字体功能; + - 增加了复位快捷键功能; + - 改进了状态栏; + +它还改进了播放列表的改变通知，播放列表容器，采样率转换器，cmake 构建脚本，标题格式化，在 mpeg 插件中支持 ape 标签，fileops 插件，降低了 cpu 占用率，改变默认的皮肤（炫光）和分离的播放列表。 + +![qmmp-090](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/qmmp-090.jpg) + +### 在 Ubuntu 中安装 Qmmp 0.9.0 : ### + +新版本已经制做了 PPA，适用于目前所有 Ubuntu 发行版和衍生版。 + +1、 添加 [Qmmp PPA][1]. + +从 Dash 中打开终端并启动应用，通过按 Ctrl+Alt+T 快捷键。当它打开时，运行命令： + + sudo add-apt-repository ppa:forkotov02/ppa + +![qmmp-ppa](http://ubuntuhandbook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/qmmp-ppa.jpg) + +2、 在添加 PPA 后，通过更新软件来升级 Qmmp 播放器。刷新系统缓存，并通过以下命令安装软件： + + sudo apt-get update + + sudo apt-get install qmmp qmmp-plugin-pack + +就是这样。尽情享受吧！ + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://ubuntuhandbook.org/index.php/2015/09/qmmp-0-9-0-in-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Ji m][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://ubuntuhandbook.org/index.php/about/ +[1]:https://launchpad.net/~forkotov02/+archive/ubuntu/ppa diff --git a/published/201509/20150908 How to Download Install and Configure Plank Dock in Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150908 How to Download Install and Configure Plank Dock in Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ea125f9bbe --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150908 How to Download Install and Configure Plank Dock in Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +在 Ubuntu 里如何下载、安装和配置 Plank Dock +============================================================================= +一个众所周知的事实就是，Linux 是一个用户可以高度自定义的系统，有很多选项可以选择 —— 作为操作系统，有各种各样的发行版，而对于单个发行版来说，又有很多桌面环境可以选择。与其他操作系统的用户一样，Linux 用户也有不同的口味和喜好，特别是对于桌面来说。 + +一些用户并非很在意他们的桌面，而其他一些则非常关心，要确保他们的桌面看起来很酷，很有吸引力，对于这种情况，有很多不错的应用可以派上用场。有一个应用可以给你的桌面带来活力 —— 特别是当你常用一个全局菜单的时候 —— 这就是 dock 。Linux 上有很多 dock 应用可选用；如果你希望是一个最简洁的，那么就选择 [Plank][1] 吧，文章接下来就要讨论这个应用。 + +**注意**：接下提到的例子和命令都已在 Ubuntu（版本 14.10）和 Plank（版本 0.9.1.1383）上测试通过。 + +### Plank ### + +官方的文档描述 Plank 是“这个星球上最简洁的 dock”。该项目的目的就是仅提供一个 dock 需要的功能，尽管这是很基础的一个库，却可以被扩展，创造其他的含更多高级功能的 dock 程序。 + +这里值得一提的就是，在 elementary OS 里，Plank 是预装的。并且 Plank 是 Docky 的基础，Docky 也是一个非常流行的 dock 应用，在功能上与 Mac OS X 的 Dock 非常相似。 + +### 下载和安装 ### + +通过在终端里执行下面的命令，可以下载并安装 Plank： + + sudo add-apt-repository ppa:docky-core/stable + sudo apt-get update + sudo apt-get install plank + +安装成功后，你就可以在 Unity Dash（见下面图片）里通过输入 Plank 来打开该应用，或者从应用菜单里面打开，如果你没有使用 Unity 环境的话。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/plank-unity-dash.png) + +### 特性 ### + +当 Plank 启用后，你会看见它停靠在你桌面的底部中间位置。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/plank-enabled-new.jpg) + +正如上面图片显示的那样，dock 包含许多带橙色标示的应用图标，这表明这些应用正处于运行状态。无需说，你可以点击一个图标来打开那个应用。同时，右击一个应用图标会给出更多的选项，你可能会感兴趣。举个例子，看下面的屏幕快照： + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/plank-right-click-icons-new.jpg) + +为了获得配置的选项，你需要右击一下 Plank 的图标（左数第一个），然后点击 Preferences 选项。这就会出现如下的窗口。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/plank-preferences.png) + +如你所见，Preferences 窗口包含两个标签：Apperance 和 Behavior，前者是默认选中的。Appearance 标签栏包含 Plank 主题相关的设置，dock 的位置，对齐，还有图标相关的，而 Behavior 标签栏包含 dock 本身相关的设定。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/plank-behavior-settings.png) + +举个例子，我在 Appearance 里改变 dock 的位置为右侧，在 Behavior 里锁定图标（这表示右击选项中不再有 “Keep in Dock”）。 + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/plank-right-lock-new.jpg) + +如你所见的上面屏幕快照一样，改变生效了。类似地，根据你个人需求，改变任何可用的设定。 + +### 结论 ### + +如我开始所说的那样，使用 dock 不是强制的。尽管如此，使用一个会让事情变得方便，特别是你习惯了 Mac，而最近由于一些原因切换到了 Linux 系统。就其本身而言，Plank 不仅提供简洁性，还有可信任和稳定性 —— 该项目一直被很好地维护着。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/download-install-configure-plank-dock-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Himanshu Arora][a] +译者：[wi-cuckoo](https://github.com/wi-cuckoo) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/himanshu/ +[1]:https://launchpad.net/plank diff --git a/published/201509/20150908 List Of 10 Funny Linux Commands.md b/published/201509/20150908 List Of 10 Funny Linux Commands.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..9b89da3b2b --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150908 List Of 10 Funny Linux Commands.md @@ -0,0 +1,184 @@ +10 条真心有趣的 Linux 命令 +================================================================================ + +**在终端工作是一件很有趣的事情。今天，我们将会列举一些有趣得为你带来欢笑的Linux命令。** + +### 1. rev ### + +创建一个文件，在文件里面输入几个单词，rev命令会将你写的东西反转输出到控制台。 + + # rev + +![Selection_002](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0021.png) + +![Selection_001](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0011.png) + +### 2. fortune ### + +这个命令没有被默认安装，用apt-get命令安装它，fortune命令会随机显示一些句子 + + crank@crank-System:~$ sudo apt-get install fortune + +![Selection_003](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0031.png) + +利用fortune命令的**_s** 选项，他会限制一个句子的输出长度。 + + # fortune -s + +![Selection_004](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0042.png) + +### 3. yes ### + + # yes + +这个命令会不停打印字符串，直到用户把这进程给结束掉。 + + # yes unixmen + +![Selection_005](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0054.png) + +### 4. figlet ### + +这个命令可以用apt-get安装，安装之后，在**/usr/share/figlet**可以看到一些ascii字体文件。 + + cd /usr/share/figlet + +---------- + + #figlet -f + #figlet -f big.flf unixmen + +![Selection_006](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0062.png) + + #figlet -f block.flf unixmen + +![Selection_007](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0072.png) + +当然，你也可以尝试使用其他的选项。 + +### 5. asciiquarium ### + +这个命令会将你的终端变成一个海洋馆。 + +下载term animator： + + # wget http://search.cpan.org/CPAN/authors/id/K/KB/KBAUCOM/Term-Animation-2.4.tar.gz + +安装并且配置这个包： + + # tar -zxvf Term-Animation-2.4.tar.gz + # cd Term-Animation-2.4/ + # perl Makefile.PL && make && make test + # sudo make install + +接着安装下面这个包: + + # apt-get install libcurses-perl + +下载并且安装asciiquarium： + + # wget http://www.robobunny.com/projects/asciiquarium/asciiquarium.tar.gz + # tar -zxvf asciiquarium.tar.gz + # cd asciiquarium_1.0/ + # cp asciiquarium /usr/local/bin/ + +执行如下命令： + + # /usr/local/bin/asciiquarium + +![asciiquarium_1.1 : perl_008](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/asciiquarium_1.1-perl_008.png) + +### 6. bb ### + + # apt-get install bb + # bb + +看看会输出什么？ + +![Selection_009](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0092.png) + +### 7. sl ### + +有的时候你可能把 **ls** 误打成了 **sl**，其实 **sl** 也是一个命令，如果你打 sl的话，你会看到一个移动的火车头 + + # apt-get install sl + +---------- + + # sl + +![Selection_012](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0122.png) + +### 8. cowsay ### + +一个很常见的命令，它会用ascii显示你想说的话。 + + apt-get install cowsay + +---------- + + # cowsay + +![Selection_013](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0132.png) + +或者，你可以用其他的角色来取代默认角色来说这句话，这些角色都存储在**/usr/share/cowsay/cows**目录下 + + # cd /usr/share/cowsay/cows + +---------- + + cowsay -f ghostbusters.cow unixmen + +![Selection_014](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0141.png) + +或者 + + # cowsay -f bud-frogs.cow Rajneesh + +![Selection_015](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0151.png) + +### 9. toilet ### + +你没看错，这是个命令来的，他会将字符串以彩色的ascii字符串形式输出到终端 + + # apt-get install toilet + +---------- + + # toilet --gay unixmen + +![Selection_016](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0161.png) + + toilet -F border -F gay unixmen + +![Selection_020](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_020.png) + + toilet -f mono12 -F metal unixmen + +![Selection_018](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0181.png) + +### 10. aafire ### + +aafire能让你的终端燃起来。 + + # apt-get install libaa-bin + +---------- + + # aafire + +![Selection_019](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0191.png) + +就这么多，祝你们在Linux终端玩得开心哈！！！ + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.unixmen.com/list-10-funny-linux-commands/ + +作者：[Rajneesh Upadhyay][a] +译者：[tnuoccalanosrep](https://github.com/tnuoccalanosrep) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.unixmen.com/author/rajneesh/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150909 Linux Server See the Historical and Statistical Uptime of System With tuptime Utility.md b/published/201509/20150909 Linux Server See the Historical and Statistical Uptime of System With tuptime Utility.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4c6356ec4e --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150909 Linux Server See the Historical and Statistical Uptime of System With tuptime Utility.md @@ -0,0 +1,153 @@ +使用 tuptime 工具查看 Linux 服务器系统的开机时间的历史和统计 +================================================================================ + +你可以使用下面的工具来查看 Linux 或类 Unix 系统运行了多长时间： + +- uptime ： 告诉你服务器运行了多长的时间。 +- lastt ： 显示重启和关机时间。 +- tuptime ： 报告系统的运行时间历史和运行时间统计，这是指重启之间的运行时间。和 uptime 命令类似，不过输出结果更有意思。 + +### 找出系统上次重启时间和日期 ### + +你[可以使用下面的命令来获取Linux操作系统的上次重启和关机时间及日期][1]（在OSX/类Unix系统上也可以用）： + + ### 显示系统重启和关机时间 + who -b + last reboot + last shutdown + ### 开机信息 + uptime + cat /proc/uptime + awk '{ print "up " $1 /60 " minutes"}' /proc/uptime + w + +**样例输出：** + +![Fig.01: Various Linux commands in action to find out the server uptime](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/uptime-w-awk-outputs.jpg) + +*图01：用于找出服务器开机时间的多个Linux命令* + +###跟 tuptime 问打个招呼吧### + +tuptime 命令行工具可以报告基于 Linux 的系统上的下列信息： + +1. 系统启动次数统计 +2. 注册首次启动时间（也就是安装时间） +3. 正常关机和意外关机统计 +4. 平均开机时间和故障停机时间 +5. 当前开机时间 +6. 首次启动以来的开机和故障停机率 +7. 累积系统开机时间、故障停机时间和合计 +8. 报告每次启动、开机时间、关机和故障停机时间 + +#### 安装 #### + +输入[下面的命令来克隆 git 仓库到 Linux 系统中][2]： + + $ cd /tmp + $ git clone https://github.com/rfrail3/tuptime.git + $ ls + $ cd tuptime + $ ls + +**样例输出：** + +![Fig.02: Cloning a git repo](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/git-install-tuptime.jpg) + +*图02：克隆git仓库* + +确保你安装了带有 sys，optparse，os，re，string，sqlite3，datetime，disutils 和 locale 模块的 Python v2.7。 + +你可以像下面这样来安装： + + $ sudo tuptime-install.sh + +或者，可以手工安装（基于 systemd 或非 systemd ）： + + $ sudo cp /tmp/tuptime/latest/cron.d/tuptime /etc/cron.d/tuptime + +如果系统是systemd的，拷贝服务文件并启用： + + $ sudo cp /tmp/tuptime/latest/systemd/tuptime.service /lib/systemd/system/ + $ sudo systemctl enable tuptime.service + +如果系统不是systemd的，拷贝初始化文件： + + $ sudo cp /tmp/tuptime/latest/init.d/tuptime.init.d-debian7 /etc/init.d/tuptime + $ sudo update-rc.d tuptime defaults + +####运行#### + +只需输入以下命令： + + $ sudo tuptime + +**样例输出：** + +![Fig.03: tuptime in action](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/tuptime-output.jpg) + +*图03：tuptime工作中* + +在一次更新内核后，我重启了系统，然后再次输入了同样的命令： + + $ sudo tuptime + System startups: 2 since 03:52:16 PM 08/21/2015 + System shutdowns: 1 ok - 0 bad + Average uptime: 7 days, 16 hours, 48 minutes and 3 seconds + Average downtime: 2 hours, 30 minutes and 5 seconds + Current uptime: 5 minutes and 28 seconds since 06:23:06 AM 09/06/2015 + Uptime rate: 98.66 % + Downtime rate: 1.34 % + System uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 36 minutes and 7 seconds + System downtime: 5 hours, 0 minutes and 11 seconds + System life: 15 days, 14 hours, 36 minutes and 18 seconds + +你可以像下面这样修改日期和时间格式： + + $ sudo tuptime -d '%H:%M:%S %m-%d-%Y' + +**样例输出：** + + System startups: 1 since 15:52:16 08-21-2015 + System shutdowns: 0 ok - 0 bad + Average uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 21 minutes and 19 seconds + Average downtime: 0 seconds + Current uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 21 minutes and 19 seconds since 15:52:16 08-21-2015 + Uptime rate: 100.0 % + Downtime rate: 0.0 % + System uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 21 minutes and 19 seconds + System downtime: 0 seconds + System life: 15 days, 9 hours, 21 minutes and 19 seconds + +计算每次启动、开机时间、关机和故障停机时间： + + $ sudo tuptime -e + +**样例输出：** + + Startup: 1 at 03:52:16 PM 08/21/2015 + Uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 22 minutes and 33 seconds + + System startups: 1 since 03:52:16 PM 08/21/2015 + System shutdowns: 0 ok - 0 bad + Average uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 22 minutes and 33 seconds + Average downtime: 0 seconds + Current uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 22 minutes and 33 seconds since 03:52:16 PM 08/21/2015 + Uptime rate: 100.0 % + Downtime rate: 0.0 % + System uptime: 15 days, 9 hours, 22 minutes and 33 seconds + System downtime: 0 seconds + System life: 15 days, 9 hours, 22 minutes and 33 seconds + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.cyberciti.biz/hardware/howto-see-historical-statistical-uptime-on-linux-server/ + +作者：Vivek Gite +译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://www.cyberciti.biz/hardware/howto-see-historical-statistical-uptime-on-linux-server/ +[2]:http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/debian-ubunut-linux-download-a-git-repository/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150911 10 Useful Linux Command Line Tricks for Newbies--Part 2.md b/published/201509/20150911 10 Useful Linux Command Line Tricks for Newbies--Part 2.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..86ae1ec668 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150911 10 Useful Linux Command Line Tricks for Newbies--Part 2.md @@ -0,0 +1,251 @@ +给新手的 10 个有用 Linux 命令行技巧 +================================================================================ + +我记得我第一次使用 Linux 的时候，我还习惯于 Windows 的图形界面，我真的很讨厌 Linux 终端。那时候我觉得命令难以记忆，不能正确使用它们。随着时间推移，我意识到了 Linux 终端的优美、灵活和可用性，说实话，我没有一天不使用它。今天，我很高兴和刚开始接触 Linux 的人一起来分享一些有用的技巧和提示，希望能帮助他们更好的向 Linux 过渡，并帮助他们学到一些新的东西（希望如此）。 + +![给新手的 10 个命令行技巧](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/10-Linux-Commandline-Tricks.jpg) + +*10 个 Linux 命令行技巧* + +- [5 个有趣的 Linux 命令行技巧][1] +- [管理 Linux 文件类型的 5 个有用命令][2] + +这篇文章希望向你展示一些不需要很高的技术就可以像一个高手一样使用 Linux 终端的有用技巧。你只需要一个 Linux 终端和一些自由时间来体会这些命令。 + +### 1. 找到正确的命令 ### + +执行正确的命令对你的系统来说非常重要。然而在 Linux 中有如此多的、难以记忆的各种的命令行。那么怎样才能找到你需要的正确命令呢？答案是 apropos。你只需要运行： + + # apropos + +其中你要用真正描述你要查找的命令的语句代替 “description”。这里有一个例子： + + # apropos "list directory" + + dir (1) - list directory contents + ls (1) - list directory contents + ntfsls (8) - list directory contents on an NTFS filesystem + vdir (1) - list directory contents + +左边你看到的是命令，右边是它们的描述。 + +### 2. 执行之前的命令 ### + +很多时候你需要一遍又一遍执行相同的命令。尽管你可以重复按你键盘上的向上光标键，但你也可以用 history 命令替代。这个命令会列出自从你上次启动终端以来所有输入过的命令： + + # history + + 1 fdisk -l + 2 apt-get install gnome-paint + 3 hostname tecmint.com + 4 hostnamectl tecmint.com + 5 man hostnamectl + 6 hostnamectl --set-hostname tecmint.com + 7 hostnamectl -set-hostname tecmint.com + 8 hostnamectl set-hostname tecmint.com + 9 mount -t "ntfs" -o + 10 fdisk -l + 11 mount -t ntfs-3g /dev/sda5 /mnt + 12 mount -t rw ntfs-3g /dev/sda5 /mnt + 13 mount -t -rw ntfs-3g /dev/sda5 /mnt + 14 mount -t ntfs-3g /dev/sda5 /mnt + 15 mount man + 16 man mount + 17 mount -t -o ntfs-3g /dev/sda5 /mnt + 18 mount -o ntfs-3g /dev/sda5 /mnt + 19 mount -ro ntfs-3g /dev/sda5 /mnt + 20 cd /mnt + ... + +正如你上面看到的，你会得到一个你运行过的命令的列表。每一行中有一个数字表示你在第几行输入了命令。你可以通过以下方法重新调用该命令： + + !# + +其中要用命令的实际编号代替 #。为了更好的理解，请看下面的例子： + + !501 + +等价于： + + # history + +### 3. 使用 midnight 命令 ### + +如果你不习惯使用类似 cd、cp、mv、rm 等命令，你可以使用 midnight 命令。它是一个简单的可视化 shell，你可以在上面使用鼠标： + +![Midnight 命令](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/mc-command.jpg) + +*Midnight 命令* + +借助 F1 到 F12 键，你可以轻易地执行不同任务。只需要在底部选择对应的命令。要选择文件或者目录，按下 “Insert” 键。 + +简而言之 midnight 就是所谓的 “mc”。要安装 mc，只需要运行： + + $ sudo apt-get install mc [On Debian based systems] + +---------- + + # yum install mc [On Fedora based systems] + +下面是一个使用 midnight 命令器的简单例子。通过输入以下命令打开 mc： + + # mc + +现在使用 TAB 键选择不同的窗口 - 左和右。我有一个想要移动到 “Software” 目录的 LibreOffice 文件： + +![Midnight 命令移动文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Midnight-Commander-Move-Files.jpg) + +*Midnight 命令移动文件* + +按 F6 按钮移动文件到新的目录。MC 会请求你确认： + +![移动文件到新目录](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Move-Files-to-new-Directory.png) + +*移动文件到新目录* + +确认了之后，文件就会被移动到新的目标目录。 + +- 扩展阅读：[如何在 Linux 中使用 Midnight 命令文件管理器][4] + +### 4. 在指定时间关闭计算机 ### + +有时候你需要在下班几个小时后再关闭计算机。你可以通过使用下面的命令在指定时间关闭你的计算机： + + $ sudo shutdown 21:00 + +这会告诉你在你指定的时间关闭计算机。你也可以告诉系统在指定分钟后关闭： + + $ sudo shutdown +15 + +这表示计算机会在 15 分钟后关闭。 + +### 5. 显示已知用户的信息 ### + +你可以使用一个简单的命令列出你 Linux 系统的用户以及一些关于它们的基本信息。 + + # lslogins + +这会输出下面的结果： + + UID USER PWD-LOCK PWD-DENY LAST-LOGIN GECOS + 0 root 0 0 Apr29/11:35 root + 1 bin 0 1 bin + 2 daemon 0 1 daemon + 3 adm 0 1 adm + 4 lp 0 1 lp + 5 sync 0 1 sync + 6 shutdown 0 1 Jul19/10:04 shutdown + 7 halt 0 1 halt + 8 mail 0 1 mail + 10 uucp 0 1 uucp + 11 operator 0 1 operator + 12 games 0 1 games + 13 gopher 0 1 gopher + 14 ftp 0 1 FTP User + 23 squid 0 1 + 25 named 0 1 Named + 27 mysql 0 1 MySQL Server + 47 mailnull 0 1 + 48 apache 0 1 Apache + ... + +### 6. 查找文件 ### + +查找文件有时候并不像你想象的那么简单。一个搜索文件的好例子是： + + # find /home/user -type f + +这个命令会搜索 /home/user 目录下的所有文件。find 命令真的很强大，你可以传递更多选项给它使得你的搜索更加详细。如果你想搜索超过特定大小的文件，可以使用： + + # find . -type f -size 10M + +上面的命令会搜索当前目录中所有大于 10M 的文件。确保不要在你 Linux 系统的根目录运行该命令，因为这可能导致你的机器 I/O 瓶颈。 + +我最经常和 find 命令一起使用的选项之一是 “exec”，这允许你对 find 命令的结果运行一些操作。 + +例如，假如我们想查找一个目录中的所有文件并更改权限。可以通过以下简单命令完成： + + # find /home/user/files/ -type f -exec chmod 644 {} \; + +上面的命令会递归搜索指定目录内的所有文件，并对找到的文件执行 chmod 命令。推荐你阅读 [35 个 Linux ‘find’ 命令的使用方法][5]，我肯定你会发现这个命令更多的使用方法。 + +### 7. 用一个命令创建目录树 ### + +你很可能知道可以使用 mkdir 命令创建新的目录。因此如果你想创建一个新的目录，你可能会运行： + + # mkdir new_folder + +但如果你想在该目录下创建 5 个子目录呢？运行 5 次 mkdir 命令并非是一个好的选择。相反你可以类似下面这样使用 -p 选项： + + # mkdir -p new_folder/{folder_1,folder_2,folder_3,folder_4,folder_5} + +最后你会在 new_folder 中有 5 个目录： + + # ls new_folder/ + + folder_1 folder_2 folder_3 folder_4 folder_5 + +### 8. 复制文件到多个目录 ### + +通常使用 cp 命令进行文件复制。复制文件通常看起来类似： + + # cp /path-to-file/my_file.txt /path-to-new-directory/ + +现在假设你需要复制该文件到多个目录： + + # cp /home/user/my_file.txt /home/user/1 + # cp /home/user/my_file.txt /home/user/2 + # cp /home/user/my_file.txt /home/user/3 + +这有点荒唐。相反，你可以用简单的一行命令解决问题： + + # echo /home/user/1/ /home/user/2/ /home/user/3/ | xargs -n 1 cp /home/user/my_file.txt + +### 9. 删除大文件 ### + +有时候文件可能会变得很大。我看过由于缺乏管理技能一个日志文件就超过 250G 的例子。用 rm 命令可能不足以删除该文件，因为有大量的数据需要移除。应该避免这个很“笨重”的操作。相反，你可以使用一个简单的方法解决这个问题： + + # > /path-to-file/huge_file.log + +当然你需要根据你实际情况替换路径和文件名。上面的命令写一个空输出到该文件。用更简单的话说它会清空文件而不会导致你的系统产生大的 I/O 消耗。 + +### 10. 在多个 Linux 服务器上运行相同命令 ### + +最近我们的一个读者在 [LinuxSay 论坛][6]提问说如何通过 ssh 在多个 Linux 服务器上执行一个命令。他机器的 IP 地址是： + + 10.0.0.1 + 10.0.0.2 + 10.0.0.3 + 10.0.0.4 + 10.0.0.5 + +这里有一个简单的解决方法。将服务器的 IP 地址写到文件 list.txt 中，像上面那样一行一个。然后运行： + + # for in $i(cat list.txt); do ssh user@$i 'bash command'; done + +上面的命令中你需要用实际登录的用户替换 “user”，用你希望执行的实际命令替换 “bash command”。这个方法非常适用于通过[使用 SSH 密钥进行无密码验证][7]，因为这样你不需要每次都为用户输入密码。 + +注意取决于你 Linux 系统的设置，你可能还需要传递一些额外的参数给 SSH 命令。 + +### 总结 ### + +上面的例子都很简单，我希望它们能帮助你发现 Linux 的优美之处，你如何能简单实现在其它操作系统上需要更多时间的不同操作。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/10-useful-linux-command-line-tricks-for-newbies/ + +作者：[Marin Todorov][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/marintodorov89/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-5485-1.html +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/manage-file-types-and-set-system-time-in-linux/ +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/history-command-examples/ +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/midnight-commander-a-console-based-file-manager-for-linux/ +[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/35-practical-examples-of-linux-find-command/ +[6]:http://www.linuxsay.com/ +[7]:https://linux.cn/article-5202-1.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/201509/20150914 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to remove unused old kernel images on Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150914 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to remove unused old kernel images on Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4ac40ff485 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150914 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to remove unused old kernel images on Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +Linux有问必答：如何删除Ubuntu上不再使用的旧内核 +================================================================================ +> **提问**：过去我已经在我的Ubuntu上升级了几次内核。现在我想要删除这些旧的内核镜像来节省我的磁盘空间。如何用最简单的方法删除Ubuntu上先前版本的内核？ + +在Ubuntu上，有几个方法来升级内核。在Ubuntu桌面中，软件更新允许你每天检查并更新到最新的内核上。在Ubuntu服务器上，最为重要的安全更新项目之一就是 unattended-upgrades 软件包会自动更新内核。然而，你也可以手动用apt-get或者aptitude命令来更新。 + +随着时间的流逝，持续的内核更新会在系统中积聚大量的不再使用的内核，浪费你的磁盘空间。每个内核镜像和其相关联的模块/头文件会占用200-400MB的磁盘空间，因此由不再使用的内核而浪费的磁盘空间会快速地增加。 + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/636/21352725115_29ae7aab5f_c.jpg) + +GRUB管理器为每个旧内核都维护了一个GRUB入口，以备你想要使用它们。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5803/21164866468_07760fc23c_z.jpg) + +作为磁盘清理的一部分，如果你不再使用这些，你可以考虑清理掉这些镜像。 + +### 如何清理旧内核镜像 ### + +在删除旧内核之前，记住最好留有2个最近的内核（最新的和上一个版本），以防主要的版本出错。现在就让我们看看如何在Ubuntu上清理旧内核。 + +在Ubuntu内核镜像包含了以下的包。 + +- **linux-image-**: 内核镜像 +- **linux-image-extra-**: 额外的内核模块 +- **linux-headers-**: 内核头文件 + +首先检查系统中安装的内核镜像。 + + $ dpkg --list | grep linux-image + $ dpkg --list | grep linux-headers + +在列出的内核镜像中，你可以移除一个特定的版本（比如3.19.0-15）。 + + $ sudo apt-get purge linux-image-3.19.0-15 + $ sudo apt-get purge linux-headers-3.19.0-15 + +上面的命令会删除内核镜像和它相关联的内核模块和头文件。 + +注意如果你还没有升级内核那么删除旧内核会自动触发安装新内核。这样在删除旧内核之后，GRUB配置会自动升级来移除GRUB菜单中相关GRUB入口。 + +如果你有很多没用的内核，你可以用shell表达式来一次性地删除多个内核。注意这个括号表达式只在bash或者兼容的shell中才有效。 + + $ sudo apt-get purge linux-image-3.19.0-{18,20,21,25} + $ sudo apt-get purge linux-headers-3.19.0-{18,20,21,25} + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5619/21352725355_39cc4fc2d0_c.jpg) + +上面的命令会删除4个内核镜像：3.19.0-18、3.19.0-20、3.19.0-21 和 3.19.0-25。 + +如果GRUB配置由于任何原因在删除旧内核后没有正确升级，你可以尝试手动用update-grub2命令来更新配置。 + + $ sudo update-grub2 + +现在就重启来验证GRUB菜单是否已经正确清理了。 + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/593/20731623163_cccfeac854_z.jpg) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://ask.xmodulo.com/remove-kernel-images-ubuntu.html + +作者：[Dan Nanni][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/author/nanni diff --git a/published/201509/20150915 Ubuntu Linux-Based Open Source OS Runs 42 Percent of Dell PCs in China.md b/published/201509/20150915 Ubuntu Linux-Based Open Source OS Runs 42 Percent of Dell PCs in China.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6364017ac7 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150915 Ubuntu Linux-Based Open Source OS Runs 42 Percent of Dell PCs in China.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +Ubuntu 开源操作系统运行在中国 42% 的 Dell PC 上 +================================================================================ + +> Dell 称它在中国市场出售的 42% 的 PC 运行的是 Kylin，这是一款 Canonical 帮助开发的基于 Ubuntu 的操作系统。 + +让开源粉丝欢喜的是：Linux 桌面年来了。或者说中国正在接近这个目标，[Dell][1] 报告称它售卖的超过 40% 的 PC 机运行的是 [Canonical][3] 帮助开发的 [Ubuntu Linux][2]。 + +特别地，Dell 称 42% 的中国电脑运行 NeoKylin（中标麒麟），一款中国本土倾力打造的用于替代 [Microsoft][4] Windows的操作系统。它也简称麒麟，这是一款从 2013 年出来的基于 Ubuntu 的操作系统，也是这年开始 Canonical 公司与中国政府合作建立一个专供中国市场的 Ubuntu 变种。 + +麒麟的早期版本出现于 2001 年左右，也是基于其他操作系统，包括 FreeBSD，这是一个开放源码但是不同于 Linux 的类 Unix 操作系统。 + +Ubuntu 麒麟的外观和感觉很像 Ubuntu 的现代版本。它拥有的 [Unity][5] 界面，并运行开源软件的标准套件，以及专门的如 Youker 助理程序，它是一个图形化的前端，帮助用户管理基本计算任务。但是麒麟的默认主题使得它看起来有点像 Windows 而不是 Ubuntu。 + + 鉴于桌面 Linux PC 市场在世界上大多数国家的相对停滞，戴尔的宣布是令人吃惊的。结合中国对当前版本 windows 的轻微[敌意][6]，这个消息并不看好着微软在中国市场的前景。 + +紧跟着 Dell 公司[宣布][7]在华投资1.25亿美元之后，一位决策者给华尔街杂志的评论中提到了 Dell 在中国市场上 PC 的销售。 + + ![Ubuntu Kylin](http://thevarguy.com/site-files/thevarguy.com/files/imagecache/medium_img/uploads/2015/09/hey_2.png) + + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://thevarguy.com/open-source-application-software-companies/091515/ubuntu-linux-based-open-source-os-runs-42-percent-dell-pc + +作者：[Christopher Tozzi][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geeekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://thevarguy.com/author/christopher-tozzi +[1]:http://dell.com/ +[2]:http://ubuntu.com/ +[3]:http://canonical.com/ +[4]:http://microsoft.com/ +[5]:http://unity.ubuntu.com/ +[6]:http://www.wsj.com/articles/windows-8-faces-new-criticism-in-china-1401882772 +[7]:http://thevarguy.com/business-technology-solution-sales/091415/dell-125-million-directed-china-jobs-new-business-and-innovation diff --git a/published/201509/20150916 Enable Automatic System Updates In Ubuntu.md b/published/201509/20150916 Enable Automatic System Updates In Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2a3ef499e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150916 Enable Automatic System Updates In Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +开启 Ubuntu 系统自动升级 +================================================================================ +在学习如何开启Ubuntu系统自动升级之前，先解释下为什么需要自动升级。 + +默认情况下，ubuntu每天一次检查更新。但是一周只会弹出一次软件升级提醒，除非当有安全性升级时，才会立即弹出。所以，如果你已经使用Ubuntu一段时间，你肯定很熟悉这个画面： + +![Ubuntu软件升级提醒](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Software-Update-Ubntu.png) + +但是做为一个正常桌面用户，根本不会去关心有什么更新细节。而且这个提醒完全就是浪费时间，你肯定信任Ubuntu提供的升级补丁，对不对？所以，大部分情况你肯定会选择“现在安装”，对不对？ + +所以，你需要做的就只是点一下升级按钮。现在，明白为什么需要自动系统升级了吧？开启自动系统升级意味着所有最新的更新都会自动下载并安装，并且没有请求确认。是不是很方便？ + +### 开启Ubuntu自动升级 ### + +演示使用Ubuntu15.04，Ubuntu 14.04步骤类似。 + +打开Unity Dash ，找到软件&更新： + +![Ubuntu 软件升级设置](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Software_Update_Ubuntu.jpeg) + +打开软件资源设置，切换到升级标签： + +![Ubuntu 软件升级设置](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Software-Update-Ubntu-1.png) + +可以发现，默认设置就是每日检查并立即提醒安全升级。 + +![改变软件更新频率](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Software-Update-Ubntu-2.png) + +改变 ‘当有安全升级’和‘当有其他升级’的选项为：下载并自动安装。 + +![Automatic updates in Ubuntu](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Software-Update-Ubntu-3.png) + +关闭对话框完成设定。这样每次Ubuntu检查更新后就会自动升级。事实上，这篇文章十分类似[改变Ubuntu升级提醒频率][1]。 + +你喜欢自动升级还是手动安装升级呢？欢迎评论。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/automatic-system-updates-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[Vic020/VicYu](http://vicyu.net) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://itsfoss.com/ubuntu-notify-updates-frequently/ diff --git a/published/201509/20150916 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to find out which CPU core a process is running on.md b/published/201509/20150916 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to find out which CPU core a process is running on.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..be9b16e5e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/201509/20150916 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to find out which CPU core a process is running on.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +Linux 有问必答：如何知道进程运行在哪个 CPU 内核上？ +================================================================================ +>问题：我有个 Linux 进程运行在多核处理器系统上。怎样才能找出哪个 CPU 内核正在运行该进程？ + +当你在 [多核 NUMA 处理器上][1]运行需要较高性能的 HPC（高性能计算）程序或非常消耗网络资源的程序时，CPU/memory 的亲和力是限度其发挥最大性能的重要因素之一。在同一 NUMA 节点上调度最相关的进程可以减少缓慢的远程内存访问。像英特尔 Sandy Bridge 处理器，该处理器有一个集成的 PCIe 控制器，你可以在同一 NUMA 节点上调度网络 I/O 负载（如网卡）来突破 PCI 到 CPU 亲和力限制。 + +作为性能优化和故障排除的一部分，你可能想知道特定的进程被调度到哪个 CPU 内核（或 NUMA 节点）上运行。 + +这里有几种方法可以 **找出哪个 CPU 内核被调度来运行给定的 Linux 进程或线程**。 + +### 方法一 ### + +如果一个进程使用 [taskset][2] 命令明确的被固定（pinned）到 CPU 的特定内核上，你可以使用 taskset 命令找出被固定的 CPU 内核： + + $ taskset -c -p + +例如, 如果你对 PID 5357 这个进程有兴趣: + + $ taskset -c -p 5357 + +---------- + + pid 5357's current affinity list: 5 + +输出显示这个过程被固定在 CPU 内核 5上。 + +但是，如果你没有明确固定进程到任何 CPU 内核，你会得到类似下面的亲和力列表。 + + pid 5357's current affinity list: 0-11 + +输出表明该进程可能会被安排在从0到11中的任何一个 CPU 内核。在这种情况下，taskset 不能识别该进程当前被分配给哪个 CPU 内核，你应该使用如下所述的方法。 + +### 方法二 ### + +ps 命令可以告诉你每个进程/线程目前分配到的 （在“PSR”列）CPU ID。 + + $ ps -o pid,psr,comm -p + +---------- + + PID PSR COMMAND + 5357 10 prog + +输出表示进程的 PID 为 5357（名为"prog"）目前在CPU 内核 10 上运行着。如果该过程没有被固定，PSR 列会根据内核可能调度该进程到不同内核而改变显示。 + +### 方法三 ### + +top 命令也可以显示 CPU 被分配给哪个进程。首先，在top 命令中使用“P”选项。然后按“f”键，显示中会出现 "Last used CPU" 列。目前使用的 CPU 内核将出现在 “P”（或“PSR”）列下。 + + $ top -p 5357 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5698/21429268426_e7d1d73a04_c.jpg) + +相比于 ps 命令，使用 top 命令的好处是，你可以连续监视随着时间的改变， CPU 是如何分配的。 + +### 方法四 ### + +另一种来检查一个进程/线程当前使用的是哪个 CPU 内核的方法是使用 [htop 命令][3]。 + +从命令行启动 htop。按 键，进入"Columns"，在"Available Columns"下会添加 PROCESSOR。 + +每个进程当前使用的 CPU ID 将出现在“CPU”列中。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5788/21444522832_a5a206f600_c.jpg) + +请注意，所有以前使用的命令 taskset，ps 和 top 分配CPU 内核的 IDs 为 0，1，2，...，N-1。然而，htop 分配 CPU 内核 IDs 从 1开始（直到 N）。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://ask.xmodulo.com/cpu-core-process-is-running.html + +作者：[Dan Nanni][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/author/nanni +[1]:http://xmodulo.com/identify-cpu-processor-architecture-linux.html +[2]:http://xmodulo.com/run-program-process-specific-cpu-cores-linux.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-3141-1.html diff --git a/published/20150906 Installing NGINX and NGINX Plus With Ansible.md b/published/20150906 Installing NGINX and NGINX Plus With Ansible.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..10e16e3082 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/20150906 Installing NGINX and NGINX Plus With Ansible.md @@ -0,0 +1,449 @@ +使用 ansible 安装 NGINX 和 NGINX Plus +================================================================================ +在生产环境中，我会更喜欢做与自动化相关的所有事情。如果计算机能完成你的任务，何必需要你亲自动手呢？但是，在不断变化并存在多种技术的环境中，创建和实施自动化是一项艰巨的任务。这就是为什么我喜欢 [Ansible][1] 的原因。Ansible 是一个用于 IT 配置管理，部署和业务流程的开源工具，使用起来非常方便。 + +我最喜欢 Ansible 的一个特点是，它是完全无客户端的。要管理一个系统，通过 SSH 建立连接，它使用[Paramiko][2]（一个 Python 库）或本地的 [OpenSSH][3]。Ansible 另一个吸引人的地方是它有许多可扩展的模块。这些模块可被系统管理员用于执行一些的常见任务。特别是，它们使用 Ansible 这个强有力的工具可以跨多个服务器、环境或操作系统安装和配置任何程序，只需要一个控制节点。 + +在本教程中，我将带你使用 Ansible 完成安装和部署开源 [NGINX][4] 和我们的商业产品 [NGINX Plus][5]。我将在 [CentOS][6] 服务器上演示，但我也在下面的“在 Ubuntu 上创建 Ansible Playbook 来安装 NGINX 和 NGINX Plus”小节中包含了在 Ubuntu 服务器上部署的细节。 + +在本教程中我将使用 Ansible 1.9.2 版本，并在 CentOS 7.1 服务器上部署运行。 + + $ ansible --version + ansible 1.9.2 + + $ cat /etc/redhat-release + CentOS Linux release 7.1.1503 (Core) + +如果你还没有 Ansible，可以在 [Ansible 网站][8] 查看说明并安装它。 + +如果你使用的是 CentOS，安装 Ansible 十分简单，只要输入以下命令。如果你想使用源码编译安装或使用其他发行版，请参阅上面 Ansible 链接中的说明。 + + $ sudo yum install -y epel-release && sudo yum install -y ansible + +根据环境的不同，在本教程中的命令有的可能需要 sudo 权限。文件路径，用户名和目标服务器取决于你的环境的情况。 + +### 创建一个 Ansible Playbook 来安装 NGINX (CentOS) ### + +首先，我们要为 NGINX 的部署创建一个工作目录，包括子目录和部署配置文件。我通常建议在你的主目录中创建该目录，在文章的所有例子中都会有说明。 + + $ cd $HOME + $ mkdir -p ansible-nginx/tasks/ + $ touch ansible-nginx/deploy.yml + $ touch ansible-nginx/tasks/install_nginx.yml + +目录结构看起来是这样的。你可以使用 tree 命令来查看。 + + $ tree $HOME/ansible-nginx/ + /home/kjones/ansible-nginx/ + ├── deploy.yml + └── tasks + └── install_nginx.yml + + 1 directory, 2 files + +如果你没有安装 tree 命令，使用以下命令去安装。 + + $ sudo yum install -y tree + +#### 创建主部署文件 #### + +接下来，我们在文本编辑器中打开 **deploy.yml**。我喜欢在命令行上使用 vim 来编辑配置文件，在整个教程中也都将使用它。 + + $ vim $HOME/ansible-nginx/deploy.yml + +**deploy.yml** 文件是 Ansible 部署的主要文件，在“使用 Ansible 部署 NGINX”小节中，我们运行 ansible‑playbook 命令时会使用此文件。在这个文件中，我们指定 Ansible 运行时使用的库以及其它配置文件。 + +在这个例子中，我使用 [include][10] 模块来指定配置文件一步一步来安装NGINX。虽然可以创建一个非常大的 playbook 文件，我建议你将其分割为小文件，让它们更有条理。include 的示例中可以复制静态内容，复制配置文件，为更高级的部署使用逻辑配置设定变量。 + +在文件中输入以下行。我在顶部的注释包含了文件名用于参考。 + + # ./ansible-nginx/deploy.yml + + - hosts: nginx + tasks: + - include: 'tasks/install_nginx.yml' + +hosts 语句说明 Ansible 部署 **nginx** 组的所有服务器，服务器在 **/etc/ansible/hosts** 中指定。我们会在下面的“创建 NGINX 服务器列表”小节编辑此文件。 + +include 语句说明 Ansible 在部署过程中从 **tasks** 目录下读取并执行 **install\_nginx.yml** 文件中的内容。该文件包括以下几步：下载，安装，并启动 NGINX。我们将在下一节创建此文件。 + +#### 为 NGINX 创建部署文件 #### + +现在，先保存 **deploy.yml** 文件，并在编辑器中打开 **install\_nginx.yml** 。 + + $ vim $HOME/ansible-nginx/tasks/install_nginx.yml + +该文件包含有指令（使用 [YAML][12] 格式写的）， Ansible 会按照指令安装和配置我们的 NGINX 部署过程。每个节（过程中的步骤）起始于一个描述此步骤的 `name` 语句（前面有连字符）。 `name` 后的字符串是 Ansible 部署过程中输出到标准输出的，可以根据你的意愿来修改。YAML 文件中的节的下一行是在部署过程中将使用的模块。在下面的配置中，使用了 [`yum`][13] 和 [`service`][14] 模块。`yum` 模块用于在 CentOS 上安装软件包。`service` 模块用于管理 UNIX 的服务。在这个节的最后一行或几行指定了几个模块的参数（在本例中，这些行以 `name` 和 `state` 开始）。 + +在文件中输入以下行。就像 **deploy.yml**，在我们文件的第一行是用于参考的文件名的注释。第一个节告诉 Ansible 在CentOS 7 上从 NGINX 仓库安装该 **.rpm** 文件。这让软件包管理器直接从 NGINX 仓库安装最新最稳定的版本。根据你的 CentOS 版本修改路径。所有可用的包的列表可以在 [开源 NGINX 网站][15] 上找到。接下来的两节告诉 Ansible 使用 `yum` 模块安装最新的 NGINX 版本，然后使用 `service` 模块启动 NGINX。 + +**注意:** 在第一个节中，CentOS 包中的路径名可能由于宽度显示为连着的两行。请在一行上输入其完整路径。 + + # ./ansible-nginx/tasks/install_nginx.yml + + - name: NGINX | Installing NGINX repo rpm + yum: + name: http://nginx.org/packages/centos/7/noarch/RPMS/nginx-release-centos-7-0.el7.ngx.noarch.rpm + + - name: NGINX | Installing NGINX + yum: + name: nginx + state: latest + + - name: NGINX | Starting NGINX + service: + name: nginx + state: started + +#### 创建 NGINX 服务器列表 #### + +现在，我们设置好了 Ansible 部署的所有配置文件，我们需要告诉 Ansible 部署哪个服务器。我们需要在 Ansible 中指定 **hosts** 文件。先备份现有的文件，并新建一个新文件来部署。 + + $ sudo mv /etc/ansible/hosts /etc/ansible/hosts.backup + $ sudo vim /etc/ansible/hosts + +在文件中输入（或编辑）以下行来创建一个名为 **nginx** 的组并列出安装 NGINX 的服务器。你可以通过主机名、IP 地址、或者在一个范围，例如 **server[1-3].domain.com** 来指定服务器。在这里，我通过 IP 地址指定一台服务器。 + + # /etc/ansible/hosts + + [nginx] + 172.16.239.140 + +#### 设置安全性 #### + +接近完成了，但在部署之前，我们需要确保 Ansible 已被授权通过 SSH 访问我们的目标服务器。 + +首选并且最安全的方法是添加 Ansible 所要部署服务器的 RSA SSH 密钥到目标服务器的 **authorized\_keys** 文件中，这给予 Ansible 在目标服务器上的不受限制 SSH 权限。要了解更多关于此配置，请参阅 wiki.centos.org 上 [安全加固 OpenSSH][16]。这样，你就可以自动部署而无需用户交互。 + +另外，你也可以在部署过程中要求输入密码。我强烈建议你只在测试过程中使用这种方法，因为它是不安全的，没有办法跟踪目标主机的身份（fingerprint）变化。如果你想这样做，将每个目标主机 **/etc/ssh/ssh\_config** 文件中 StrictHostKeyChecking 的默认值 yes 改为 no。然后在 ansible-playbook 命令中添加 --ask-pass 参数来让 Ansible 提示输入 SSH 密码。 + +在这里，我将举例说明如何编辑 **ssh\_config** 文件来禁用在目标服务器上严格的主机密钥检查。我们手动连接 SSH 到我们将部署 NGINX 的服务器，并将 StrictHostKeyChecking 的值更改为 no。 + + $ ssh kjones@172.16.239.140 + kjones@172.16.239.140's password:*********** + + [kjones@nginx ]$ sudo vim /etc/ssh/ssh_config + +当你更改后，保存 **ssh\_config**，并通过 SSH 连接到你的 Ansible 服务器。保存后的设置应该如下所示。 + + # /etc/ssh/ssh_config + + StrictHostKeyChecking no + +#### 运行 Ansible 部署 NGINX #### + +如果你一直照本教程的步骤来做，你可以运行下面的命令来使用 Ansible 部署 NGINX。（再次提示，如果你设置了 RSA SSH 密钥认证，那么 --ask-pass 参数是不需要的。）在 Ansible 服务器运行命令，并使用我们上面创建的配置文件。 + + $ sudo ansible-playbook --ask-pass $HOME/ansible-nginx/deploy.yml + +Ansible 提示输入 SSH 密码，输出如下。recap 中显示 failed=0 这条信息，意味着部署成功了。 + + $ sudo ansible-playbook --ask-pass $HOME/ansible-nginx/deploy.yml + SSH password: + + PLAY [all] ******************************************************************** + + GATHERING FACTS *************************************************************** + ok: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX | Installing NGINX repo rpm] ************************************* + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX | Installing NGINX] ********************************************** + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX | Starting NGINX] ************************************************ + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + PLAY RECAP ******************************************************************** + 172.16.239.140 : ok=4 changed=3 unreachable=0 failed=0 + +如果你没有得到一个成功的 play recap，你可以尝试用 -vvvv 参数（带连接调试的详细信息）再次运行 ansible-playbook 命令来解决部署过程的问题。 + +当部署成功（假如我们是第一次部署）后，你可以在远程服务器上运行基本的 [cURL][17] 命令验证 NGINX 。在这里，它会返回 200 OK。Yes！我们使用 Ansible 成功安装了 NGINX。 + + $ curl -Is 172.16.239.140 | grep HTTP + HTTP/1.1 200 OK + +### 创建 Ansible Playbook 来安装 NGINX Plus (CentOS) ### + +现在，我已经展示了如何安装 NGINX 的开源版本，我将带你完成安装 NGINX Plus。这需要更改一些额外的部署配置，并展示了一些 Ansible 的其他功能。 + +#### 复制 NGINX Plus 上的证书和密钥到 Ansible 服务器 #### + +使用 Ansible 安装和配置 NGINX Plus 时，首先我们需要将 [NGINX Plus Customer Portal][18] NGINX Plus 订阅的密钥和证书复制到 Ansible 部署服务器上的标准位置。 + +购买了 NGINX Plus 或正在试用的客户也可以访问 NGINX Plus Customer Portal。如果你有兴趣测试 NGINX Plus，你可以申请免费试用30天，[点击这里][19]。在你注册后不久你将收到一个试用证书和密钥的链接。 + +在 Mac 或 Linux 主机上，我在这里使用 [scp][20] 工具演示。在 Microsoft Windows 主机，可以使用 [WinSCP][21]。在本教程中，先下载文件到我的 Mac 笔记本电脑上，然后使用 scp 将其复制到 Ansible 服务器。密钥和证书的位置都在我的家目录下。 + + $ cd /path/to/nginx-repo-files/ + $ scp nginx-repo.* user@destination-server:. + +接下来，我们通过 SSH 连接到 Ansible 服务器，确保 NGINX Plus 的 SSL 目录存在，移动文件到这儿。 + + $ ssh user@destination-server + $ sudo mkdir -p /etc/ssl/nginx/ + $ sudo mv nginx-repo.* /etc/ssl/nginx/ + +验证你的 **/etc/ssl/nginx** 目录包含了证书(**.crt**)和密钥(**.key**)文件。你可以使用 tree 命令检查。 + + $ tree /etc/ssl/nginx + /etc/ssl/nginx + ├── nginx-repo.crt + └── nginx-repo.key + + 0 directories, 2 files + +如果你没有安装 tree，可以使用下面的命令去安装。 + + $ sudo yum install -y tree + +#### 创建 Ansible 目录结构 #### + +以下执行的步骤和我们的“创建 Ansible Playbook 来安装 NGINX（CentOS)”小节中部署开源 NGINX 的非常相似。首先，我们建一个工作目录用于部署 NGINX Plus 使用。我喜欢将它创建为我主目录的子目录。 + + $ cd $HOME + $ mkdir -p ansible-nginx-plus/tasks/ + $ touch ansible-nginx-plus/deploy.yml + $ touch ansible-nginx-plus/tasks/install_nginx_plus.yml + +目录结构看起来像这样。 + + $ tree $HOME/ansible-nginx-plus/ + /home/kjones/ansible-nginx-plus/ + ├── deploy.yml + └── tasks + └── install_nginx_plus.yml + + 1 directory, 2 files + +#### 创建主部署文件 #### + +接下来，像开源的 NGINX 一样，我们使用 vim 创建 **deploy.yml** 文件。 + + $ vim ansible-nginx-plus/deploy.yml + +和开源 NGINX 的部署唯一的区别是，我们将包含文件的名称修改为 **install\_nginx\_plus.yml**。该文件告诉 Ansible 在 **nginx** 组中的所有服务器（**/etc/ansible/hosts** 中定义的）上部署 NGINX Plus ，然后在部署过程中从 **tasks** 目录读取并执行 **install\_nginx\_plus.yml** 的内容。 + + # ./ansible-nginx-plus/deploy.yml + + - hosts: nginx + tasks: + - include: 'tasks/install_nginx_plus.yml' + +如果你之前没有安装过的话，你需要创建 hosts 文件，详细说明在上面的“创建 NGINX 服务器的列表”小节。 + +#### 为 NGINX Plus 创建部署文件 #### + +在文本编辑器中打开 **install\_nginx\_plus.yml**。该文件包含了使用 Ansible 来安装和配置 NGINX Plus 部署过程中的指令。这些命令和模块仅针对 CentOS，有些是 NGINX Plus 独有的。 + + $ vim ansible-nginx-plus/tasks/install_nginx_plus.yml + +第一节使用 [`file`][24] 模块，告诉 Ansible 使用指定的`path`和`state`参数为 NGINX Plus 创建特定的 SSL 目录，设置属主为 root，将权限 `mode` 更改为0700。 + + # ./ansible-nginx-plus/tasks/install_nginx_plus.yml + + - name: NGINX Plus | 创建 NGINX Plus ssl 证书目录 + file: path=/etc/ssl/nginx state=directory group=root mode=0700 + +接下来的两节使用 [copy][25] 模块从 Ansible 部署服务器上将 NGINX Plus 的证书和密钥复制到 NGINX Plus 服务器上，再修改属主为 root，权限 `mode` 为0700。 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 复制 NGINX Plus repo 证书 + copy: src=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.crt dest=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.crt owner=root group=root mode=0700 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 复制 NGINX Plus 密钥 + copy: src=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.key dest=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.key owner=root group=root mode=0700 + +接下来，我们告诉 Ansible 使用 [`get_url`][26] 模块在 url 参数指定的远程位置从 NGINX Plus 仓库下载 CA 证书，通过 `dest` 参数把它放在指定的目录 `dest` ，并设置权限 `mode` 为 0700。 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 下载 NGINX Plus CA 证书 + get_url: url=https://cs.nginx.com/static/files/CA.crt dest=/etc/ssl/nginx/CA.crt mode=0700 + +同样，我们告诉 Ansible 使用 `get_url` 模块下载 NGINX Plus repo 文件，并将其复制到 NGINX Plus 服务器上的 **/etc/yum.repos.d** 目录下。 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 下载 yum NGINX Plus 仓库 + get_url: url=https://cs.nginx.com/static/files/nginx-plus-7.repo dest=/etc/yum.repos.d/nginx-plus-7.repo mode=0700 + +最后两节的 `name` 告诉 Ansible 使用 `yum` 和 `service` 模块下载并启动 NGINX Plus。 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 安装 NGINX Plus + yum: + name: nginx-plus + state: latest + + - name: NGINX Plus | 启动 NGINX Plus + service: + name: nginx + state: started + +#### 运行 Ansible 来部署 NGINX Plus #### + +在保存 **install\_nginx\_plus.yml** 文件后，运行 ansible-playbook 命令来部署 NGINX Plus。同样在这里，我们使用 --ask-pass 参数使用 Ansible 提示输入 SSH 密码并把它传递给每个 NGINX Plus 服务器，并指定主配置文件路径 **deploy.yml** 文件。 + + $ sudo ansible-playbook --ask-pass $HOME/ansible-nginx-plus/deploy.yml + + PLAY [nginx] ****************************************************************** + + GATHERING FACTS *************************************************************** + ok: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX Plus | Creating NGINX Plus ssl cert repo directory] ************** + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX Plus | Copying NGINX Plus repository certificate] **************** + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX Plus | Copying NGINX Plus repository key] ************************ + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX Plus | Downloading NGINX Plus CA certificate] ******************** + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX Plus | Downloading yum NGINX Plus repository] ******************** + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX Plus | Installing NGINX Plus] ************************************ + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + TASK: [NGINX Plus | Starting NGINX Plus] ************************************** + changed: [172.16.239.140] + + PLAY RECAP ******************************************************************** + 172.16.239.140 : ok=8 changed=7 unreachable=0 failed=0 + +playbook 的 recap 成功完成。现在，使用 curl 命令来验证 NGINX Plus 是否在运行。太好了，我们得到的是 200 OK！成功了！我们使用 Ansible 成功地安装了 NGINX Plus。 + + $ curl -Is http://172.16.239.140 | grep HTTP + HTTP/1.1 200 OK + +### 在 Ubuntu 上创建 Ansible Playbook 来安装 NGINX 和 NGINX Plus ### + +在 [Ubuntu 服务器][27] 上部署 NGINX 和 NGINX Plus 的过程与 CentOS 很相似，我将一步一步的指导来完成整个部署文件，并指出和 CentOS 的细微差异。 + +首先和 CentOS 一样，创建 Ansible 目录结构和 Ansible 主部署文件。也按“创建 NGINX 服务器的列表”小节的描述创建 **/etc/ansible/hosts** 文件。对于 NGINX Plus，你也需要安装“复制 NGINX Plus 证书和密钥到 Ansible 服务器”小节的描述复制证书和密钥。 + +下面是开源 NGINX 的 **install\_nginx.yml** 部署文件。在第一节，我们使用 [`apt_key`][30] 模块导入 NGINX 的签名密钥。接下来的两节使用 [`lineinfile`][31] 模块来添加 Ubuntu 14.04 的软件包 URL 到 **sources.list** 文件中。最后，我们使用 [`apt`][32] 模块来更新缓存并安装 NGINX（`apt` 取代了我们在 CentOS 中部署时的 `yum` 模块）。 + + # ./ansible-nginx/tasks/install_nginx.yml + + - name: NGINX | 添加 NGINX 签名密钥 + apt_key: url=http://nginx.org/keys/nginx_signing.key state=present + + - name: NGINX | 为 NGINX 添加 sources.list deb url + lineinfile: dest=/etc/apt/sources.list line="deb http://nginx.org/packages/mainline/ubuntu/ trusty nginx" + + - name: NGINX Plus | 为 NGINX 添加 sources.list deb-src url + lineinfile: dest=/etc/apt/sources.list line="deb-src http://nginx.org/packages/mainline/ubuntu/ trusty nginx" + + - name: NGINX | 更新 apt 缓存 + apt: + update_cache: yes + + - name: NGINX | 安装 NGINX + apt: + pkg: nginx + state: latest + + - name: NGINX | 启动 NGINX + service: + name: nginx + state: started + +下面是 NGINX Plus 的部署文件 **install\_nginx.yml**。前四节设置了 NGINX Plus 密钥和证书。然后，我们像开源的 NGINX 一样用 `apt_key` 模块导入签名密钥，`get_url` 模块为 NGINX Plus 下载 `apt` 配置文件。[`shell`][33] 模块使用 `printf` 命令写下输出到 **sources.list.d** 目录中的 **nginx-plus.list** 文件。最终的 `name` 模块和开源 NGINX 一样。 + + # ./ansible-nginx-plus/tasks/install_nginx_plus.yml + + - name: NGINX Plus | 创建 NGINX Plus ssl 证书 repo 目录 + file: path=/etc/ssl/nginx state=directory group=root mode=0700 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 复制 NGINX Plus 仓库证书 + copy: src=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.crt dest=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.crt owner=root group=root mode=0700 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 复制 NGINX Plus 仓库密钥 + copy: src=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.key dest=/etc/ssl/nginx/nginx-repo.key owner=root group=root mode=0700 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 安装 NGINX Plus CA 证书 + get_url: url=https://cs.nginx.com/static/files/CA.crt dest=/etc/ssl/nginx/CA.crt mode=0700 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 添加 NGINX Plus 签名密钥 + apt_key: url=http://nginx.org/keys/nginx_signing.key state=present + + - name: NGINX Plus | 安装 Apt-Get NGINX Plus 仓库 + get_url: url=https://cs.nginx.com/static/files/90nginx dest=/etc/apt/apt.conf.d/90nginx mode=0700 + + - name: NGINX Plus | 为 NGINX Plus 添加 sources.list url + shell: printf "deb https://plus-pkgs.nginx.com/ubuntu `lsb_release -cs` nginx-plus\n" >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/nginx-plus.list + + - name: NGINX Plus | 运行 apt-get update + apt: + update_cache: yes + + - name: NGINX Plus | 安装 NGINX Plus 通过 apt-get + apt: + pkg: nginx-plus + state: latest + + - name: NGINX Plus | 启动 NGINX Plus + service: + name: nginx + state: started + +现在我们已经准备好运行 ansible-playbook 命令： + + $ sudo ansible-playbook --ask-pass $HOME/ansible-nginx-plus/deploy.yml + +你应该得到一个成功的 play recap。如果你没有成功，你可以使用冗余参数，以帮助你解决出现的问题。 + +### 小结 ### + +我在这个教程中演示是什么是 Ansible，可以做些什么来帮助你自动部署 NGINX 或 NGINX Plus，这仅仅是个开始。还有许多有用的模块，包括从用户账号管理到自定义配置模板等。如果你有兴趣了解关于这些的更多信息，请访问 [Ansible 官方文档][35]。 + + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/ + +作者：[Kevin Jones][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/author/kjones/ +[1]:http://www.ansible.com/ +[2]:http://www.paramiko.org/ +[3]:http://www.openssh.com/ +[4]:http://nginx.org/en/ +[5]:https://www.nginx.com/products/ +[6]:http://www.centos.org/ +[7]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#ubuntu +[8]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/intro_installation.html#installing-the-control-machine +[9]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#deploy-nginx +[10]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/playbooks_roles.html#task-include-files-and-encouraging-reuse +[11]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#list-nginx +[12]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/YAMLSyntax.html +[13]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/yum_module.html +[14]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/service_module.html +[15]:http://nginx.org/en/linux_packages.html +[16]:http://wiki.centos.org/HowTos/Network/SecuringSSH +[17]:http://curl.haxx.se/ +[18]:https://cs.nginx.com/ +[19]:https://www.nginx.com/#free-trial +[20]:http://linux.die.net/man/1/scp +[21]:https://winscp.net/eng/download.php +[22]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#playbook-nginx +[23]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#list-nginx +[24]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/file_module.html +[25]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/copy_module.html +[26]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/get_url_module.html +[27]:http://www.ubuntu.com/ +[28]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#list-nginx +[29]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#copy-cert-key +[30]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/apt_key_module.html +[31]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/lineinfile_module.html +[32]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/apt_module.html +[33]:http://docs.ansible.com/ansible/shell_module.html +[34]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/installing-nginx-nginx-plus-ansible/#deploy-nginx +[35]:http://docs.ansible.com/ +[36]:https://www.nginx.com/nginxconf/ diff --git a/published/20150911 5 Useful Commands to Manage File Types and System Time in Linu--Part 3.md b/published/20150911 5 Useful Commands to Manage File Types and System Time in Linu--Part 3.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bfa4068997 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/20150911 5 Useful Commands to Manage File Types and System Time in Linu--Part 3.md @@ -0,0 +1,279 @@ +5 个在 Linux 中管理文件类型和系统时间的有用命令 +================================================================================ +对于想学习 Linux 的初学者来说要适应使用命令行或者终端可能非常困难。由于终端比图形用户界面程序更能帮助用户控制 Linux 系统，我们必须习惯在终端中运行命令。因此为了有效记忆 Linux 不同的命令，你应该每天使用终端并明白怎样将命令和不同选项以及参数一同使用。 + +![在 Linux 中管理文件类型并设置时间](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Find-File-Types-in-Linux.jpg) + +*在 Linux 中管理文件类型并设置时间* + +请先查看我们 Linux 小技巧系列之前的文章： + +- [5 个有趣的 Linux 命令行技巧][2] +- [给新手的 10 个有用 Linux 命令行技巧][3] + +在这篇文章中，我们打算看看终端中 5 个和文件以及时间相关的提示和技巧。 + +### Linux 中的文件类型 ### + +在 Linux 中，一切皆文件，你的设备、目录以及普通文件都认为是文件。 + +Linux 系统中文件有不同的类型： + +- 普通文件：可能包含命令、文档、音频文件、视频、图像，归档文件等。 +- 设备文件：系统用于访问你硬件组件。 + +这里有两种表示存储设备的设备文件：块文件，例如硬盘，它们以块读取数据；字符文件，以逐个字符读取数据。 + +- 硬链接和软链接：用于在 Linux 文件系统的任意地方访问文件。 +- 命名管道和套接字：允许不同的进程之间进行交互。 + +#### 1. 用 ‘file’ 命令确定文件类型 #### + +你可以像下面这样使用 file 命令确定文件的类型。下面的截图显示了用 file 命令确定不同文件类型的例子。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ dir + BACKUP master.zip + crossroads-stable.tar.gz num.txt + EDWARD-MAYA-2011-2012-NEW-REMIX.mp3 reggea.xspf + Linux-Security-Optimization-Book.gif tmp-link + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ file BACKUP/ + BACKUP/: directory + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ file master.zip + master.zip: Zip archive data, at least v1.0 to extract + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ file crossroads-stable.tar.gz + crossroads-stable.tar.gz: gzip compressed data, from Unix, last modified: Tue Apr 5 15:15:20 2011 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ file Linux-Security-Optimization-Book.gif + Linux-Security-Optimization-Book.gif: GIF image data, version 89a, 200 x 259 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ file EDWARD-MAYA-2011-2012-NEW-REMIX.mp3 + EDWARD-MAYA-2011-2012-NEW-REMIX.mp3: Audio file with ID3 version 2.3.0, contains: MPEG ADTS, layer III, v1, 192 kbps, 44.1 kHz, JntStereo + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ file /dev/sda1 + /dev/sda1: block special + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ file /dev/tty1 + /dev/tty1: character special + +#### 2. 用 ‘ls’ 和 ‘dir’ 命令确定文件类型 #### + +确定文件类型的另一种方式是用 ls 和 [dir][4] 命令显示一长串结果。 + +用 ls -l 确定一个文件的类型。 + +当你查看文件权限时，第一个字符显示了文件类型，其它字符显示文件权限。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l + total 6908 + drwxr-xr-x 2 tecmint tecmint 4096 Sep 9 11:46 BACKUP + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 1075620 Sep 9 11:47 crossroads-stable.tar.gz + -rwxr----- 1 tecmint tecmint 5916085 Sep 9 11:49 EDWARD-MAYA-2011-2012-NEW-REMIX.mp3 + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 42122 Sep 9 11:49 Linux-Security-Optimization-Book.gif + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 17627 Sep 9 11:46 master.zip + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 5 Sep 9 11:48 num.txt + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 0 Sep 9 11:46 reggea.xspf + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 5 Sep 9 11:47 tmp-link + +使用 ls -l 确定块和字符文件 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l /dev/sda1 + brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 1 Sep 9 10:53 /dev/sda1 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l /dev/tty1 + crw-rw---- 1 root tty 4, 1 Sep 9 10:54 /dev/tty1 + +使用 dir -l 确定一个文件的类型。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ dir -l + total 6908 + drwxr-xr-x 2 tecmint tecmint 4096 Sep 9 11:46 BACKUP + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 1075620 Sep 9 11:47 crossroads-stable.tar.gz + -rwxr----- 1 tecmint tecmint 5916085 Sep 9 11:49 EDWARD-MAYA-2011-2012-NEW-REMIX.mp3 + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 42122 Sep 9 11:49 Linux-Security-Optimization-Book.gif + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 17627 Sep 9 11:46 master.zip + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 5 Sep 9 11:48 num.txt + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 0 Sep 9 11:46 reggea.xspf + -rw-r--r-- 1 tecmint tecmint 5 Sep 9 11:47 tmp-link + +#### 3. 统计指定类型文件的数目 #### + +下面我们来看看在一个目录中用 ls，[grep][5] 和 [wc][6] 命令统计指定类型文件数目的技巧。命令之间的交互通过命名管道完成。 + +- grep – 用户根据给定模式或正则表达式进行搜索的命令。 +- wc – 用于统计行、字和字符的命令。 + +**统计普通文件的数目** + +在 Linux 中，普通文件用符号 `-` 表示。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l | grep ^- | wc -l + 7 + +**统计目录的数目** + +在 Linux 中，目录用符号 `d` 表示。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l | grep ^d | wc -l + 1 + +**统计符号链接和硬链接的数目** + +在 Linux 中，符号链接和硬链接用符号 `l` 表示。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l | grep ^l | wc -l + 0 + +**统计块文件和字符文件的数目** + +在 Linux 中，块和字符文件用符号 `b` 和 `c` 表示。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l /dev | grep ^b | wc -l + 37 + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ ls -l /dev | grep ^c | wc -l + 159 + +#### 4. 在 Linux 系统中查找文件 #### + +下面我们来看看在 Linux 系统中查找文件一些命令，它们包括 locate、find、whatis 和 which 命令。 + +**用 locate 命令查找文件** + +在下面的输出中，我想要定位系统中的 [Samba 服务器配置文件][7] + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ locate samba.conf + /usr/lib/tmpfiles.d/samba.conf + /var/lib/dpkg/info/samba.conffiles + +**用 find 命令查找文件** + +想要学习如何在 Linux 中使用 find 命令，你可以阅读我们以下的文章，里面列出了 find 命令的 30 多个例子和使用方法。 + +- [Linux 中 35 个 ‘find’ 命令示例][8] + +**用 whatis 命令定位命令** + +whatis 命令通常用于定位命令，它很特殊，因为它给出关于一个命令的信息，它还能查找配置文件和命令的帮助手册条目。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ whatis bash + bash (1) - GNU Bourne-Again SHell + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ whatis find + find (1) - search for files in a directory hierarchy + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ whatis ls + ls (1) - list directory contents + +**用 which 命令定位命令** + +which 命令用于定位文件系统中的命令。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ which mkdir + /bin/mkdir + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ which bash + /bin/bash + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ which find + /usr/bin/find + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ $ which ls + /bin/ls + +#### 5.处理 Linux 系统的时间 #### + +在联网环境中，保持你 Linux 系统时间准确是一个好的习惯。Linux 系统中有很多服务要求时间正确才能在联网条件下正常工作。 + +让我们来看看你可以用来管理你机器时间的命令。在 Linux 中，有两种方式管理时间：系统时间和硬件时间。 + +系统时间由系统时钟管理，硬件时间由硬件时钟管理。 + +要查看你的系统时间、日期和时区，像下面这样使用 date 命令。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ date + Wed Sep 9 12:25:40 IST 2015 + +像下面这样用 date -s 或 date -set=“STRING” 设置系统时间。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ sudo date -s "12:27:00" + Wed Sep 9 12:27:00 IST 2015 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ sudo date --set="12:27:00" + Wed Sep 9 12:27:00 IST 2015 + +你也可以像下面这样设置时间和日期。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ sudo date 090912302015 + Wed Sep 9 12:30:00 IST 2015 + +使用 cal 命令从日历中查看当前日期。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ cal + September 2015 + Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa + 1 2 3 4 5 + 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 + 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 + 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 + 27 28 29 30 + +使用 hwclock 命令查看硬件时钟时间。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ sudo hwclock + Wednesday 09 September 2015 06:02:58 PM IST -0.200081 seconds + +要设置硬件时钟时间，像下面这样使用 hwclock –set –date=“STRING” 命令。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ sudo hwclock --set --date="09/09/2015 12:33:00" + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ sudo hwclock + Wednesday 09 September 2015 12:33:11 PM IST -0.891163 seconds + +系统时间是由硬件时钟时间在启动时设置的，系统关闭时，硬件时间被重置为系统时间。 + +因此你查看系统时间和硬件时间时，它们是一样的，除非你更改了系统时间。当你的 CMOS 电量不足时，硬件时间可能不正确。 + +你也可以像下面这样使用硬件时钟的时间设置系统时间。 + + $ sudo hwclock --hctosys + +也可以像下面这样用系统时钟时间设置硬件时钟时间。 + + $ sudo hwclock --systohc + +要查看你的 Linux 系统已经运行了多长时间，可以使用 uptime 命令。 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ uptime + 12:36:27 up 1:43, 2 users, load average: 1.39, 1.34, 1.45 + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ uptime -p + up 1 hour, 43 minutes + + tecmint@tecmint ~/Linux-Tricks $ uptime -s + 2015-09-09 10:52:47 + +### 总结 ### + +对于初学者来说理解 Linux 中的文件类型是一个好的尝试，同时时间管理也非常重要，尤其是在需要可靠有效地管理服务的服务器上。希望这篇指南能对你有所帮助。如果你有任何反馈，别忘了给我们写评论。和我们保持联系。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/manage-file-types-and-set-system-time-in-linux/ + +作者：[Aaron Kili][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/aaronkili/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/tag/linux-tricks/ +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-5485-1.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-6314-1.html +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/linux-dir-command-usage-with-examples/ +[5]:https://linux.cn/article-2250-1.html +[6]:http://www.tecmint.com/wc-command-examples/ +[7]:http://www.tecmint.com/setup-samba-file-sharing-for-linux-windows-clients/ +[8]:http://www.tecmint.com/35-practical-examples-of-linux-find-command/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/20150914 How to Setup Node JS v4.0.0 on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md b/published/20150914 How to Setup Node JS v4.0.0 on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b96571c9fc --- /dev/null +++ b/published/20150914 How to Setup Node JS v4.0.0 on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +在 Ubuntu 14.04/15.04 上配置 Node JS v4.0.0 +================================================================================ +大家好，Node.JS 4.0 发布了，这个流行的服务器端 JS 平台合并了 Node.js 和 io.js 的代码，4.0 版就是这两个项目结合的产物——现在合并为一个代码库。这次最主要的变化是 Node.js 封装了4.5 版本的 Google V8 JS 引擎，与当前的 Chrome 所带的一致。所以，紧跟 V8 的发布可以让 Node.js 运行的更快、更安全，同时更好的利用 ES6 的很多语言特性。 + +![Node JS](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/nodejs.png) + +Node.js 4.0 发布的主要目标是为 io.js 用户提供一个简单的升级途径，所以这次并没有太多重要的 API 变更。下面的内容让我们来看看如何轻松的在 ubuntu server 上安装、配置 Node.js。 + +### 基础系统安装 ### + +Node 在 Linux，Macintosh，Solaris 这几个系统上都可以完美的运行，linux 的发行版本当中使用 Ubuntu 相当适合。这也是我们为什么要尝试在 ubuntu 15.04 上安装 Node.js，当然了在 14.04 上也可以使用相同的步骤安装。 + +#### 1) 系统资源 #### + +Node.js 所需的基本的系统资源取决于你的架构需要。本教程我们会在一台 1GB 内存、 1GHz 处理器和 10GB 磁盘空间的服务器上进行，最小安装即可，不需要安装 Web 服务器或数据库服务器。 + +#### 2) 系统更新 #### + +在我们安装 Node.js 之前，推荐你将系统更新到最新的补丁和升级包，所以请登录到系统中使用超级用户运行如下命令： + + # apt-get update + +#### 3) 安装依赖 #### + +Node.js 仅需要你的服务器上有一些基本系统和软件功能，比如 'make'、'gcc'和'wget' 之类的。如果你还没有安装它们，运行如下命令安装： + + # apt-get install python gcc make g++ wget + +### 下载最新版的Node JS v4.0.0 ### + +访问链接 [Node JS Download Page][1] 下载源代码. + +![nodejs download](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/download.png) + +复制其中的最新的源代码的链接，然后用`wget` 下载，命令如下： + + # wget https://nodejs.org/download/rc/v4.0.0-rc.1/node-v4.0.0-rc.1.tar.gz + +下载完成后使用命令`tar` 解压缩： + + # tar -zxvf node-v4.0.0-rc.1.tar.gz + +![wget nodejs](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/wget.png) + +### 安装 Node JS v4.0.0 ### + +现在可以开始使用下载好的源代码编译 Node.js。在开始编译前，你需要在 ubuntu server 上切换到源代码解压缩后的目录，运行 configure 脚本来配置源代码。 + + root@ubuntu-15:~/node-v4.0.0-rc.1# ./configure + +![Installing NodeJS](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/configure.png) + +现在运行命令 'make install' 编译安装 Node.js： + + root@ubuntu-15:~/node-v4.0.0-rc.1# make install + +make 命令会花费几分钟完成编译，安静的等待一会。 + +### 验证 Node.js 安装 ### + +一旦编译任务完成，我们就可以开始验证安装工作是否 OK。我们运行下列命令来确认 Node.js 的版本。 + + root@ubuntu-15:~# node -v + v4.0.0-pre + +在命令行下不带参数的运行`node` 就会进入 REPL(Read-Eval-Print-Loop,读-执行-输出-循环)模式，它有一个简化版的emacs 行编辑器，通过它你可以交互式的运行JS和查看运行结果。 + +![node version](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/node.png) + +### 编写测试程序 ### + +我们也可以写一个很简单的终端程序来测试安装是否成功，并且工作正常。要做这个，我们将会创建一个“test.js” 文件，包含以下代码，操作如下： + + root@ubuntu-15:~# vim test.js + var util = require("util"); + console.log("Hello! This is a Node Test Program"); + :wq! + +现在为了运行上面的程序，在命令行运行下面的命令。 + + root@ubuntu-15:~# node test.js + +![Node Program](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/node-test.png) + +在一个成功安装了 Node JS 的环境下运行上面的程序就会在屏幕上得到上图所示的输出，这个程序加载类 “util” 到变量 “util” 中，接着用对象 “util” 运行终端任务，console.log 这个命令作用类似 C++ 里的cout + +### 结论 ### + +就是这些了。如果你刚刚开始使用 Node.js 开发应用程序，希望本文能够通过在 ubuntu 上安装、运行 Node.js 让你了解一下Node.js 的大概。最后，我们可以认为我们可以期待 Node JS v4.0.0 能够取得显著性能提升。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/ubuntu-how-to/setup-node-js-4-0-ubuntu-14-04-15-04/ + +作者：[Kashif Siddique][a] +译者：[osk874](https://github.com/osk874) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/kashifs/ +[1]:https://nodejs.org/download/rc/v4.0.0-rc.1/ diff --git a/published/20150918 How To Add And Remove Bookmarks In Ubuntu Beginner Tip.md b/published/20150918 How To Add And Remove Bookmarks In Ubuntu Beginner Tip.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0cc17b9465 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/20150918 How To Add And Remove Bookmarks In Ubuntu Beginner Tip.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +[新手技巧] 如何在Ubuntu中添加和删除书签 +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Add-Bookmark.jpg) + +这是一篇对完全是新手的一篇技巧，我将向你展示如何在Ubuntu文件管理器中添加书签。 + +现在如果你想知道为什么要这么做，答案很简单。它可以让你可以快速地在左边栏中访问。比如，我[在Ubuntu中安装了Copy 云服务][1]。它创建在/Home/Copy。先进入Home目录再进入Copy目录并不是很麻烦，但是我想要更快地访问它。因此我添加了一个书签这样我就可以直接从侧边栏访问了。 + +### 在Ubuntu中添加书签 ### + +打开Files。进入你想要保存快速访问的目录。你需要在标记书签的目录里面。 + +现在，你有两种方法： + +#### 方法1: #### + +当你在Files（Ubuntu中的文件管理器）中时，查看顶部菜单。你会看到书签按钮。点击它你会看到将当前路径保存为书签的选项。 + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Add-Bookmark-Ubuntu.jpeg) + +#### 方法 2: #### + +你可以直接按下Ctrl+D就可以将当前位置保存为书签。 + +如你所见，这里左边栏就有一个新添加的Copy目录： + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Add-Bookmark-Ubuntu-1.jpeg) + +### 管理书签 ### + +如果你不想要太多的书签或者你错误地添加了一个书签，你可以很简单地删除它。按下Ctrl+B查看所有的书签。现在选择想要删除的书签并点击删除。 + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Remove-bookmark-ubuntu.png) + +这就是在Ubuntu中管理书签需要做的。我知道这对于大多数用户而言很简单，但是这也许多Ubuntu的新手而言或许还有用。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/add-remove-bookmarks-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://itsfoss.com/install-copy-in-ubuntu-14-04/ diff --git a/published/20150921 Meet The New Ubuntu 15.10 Default Wallpaper.md b/published/20150921 Meet The New Ubuntu 15.10 Default Wallpaper.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..dc27b3609c --- /dev/null +++ b/published/20150921 Meet The New Ubuntu 15.10 Default Wallpaper.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +看看新的 Ubuntu 15.10 默认壁纸 +================================================================================ +**全新的Ubuntu 15.10 Wily Werewolf默认壁纸已经亮相** + +乍一看你几乎无法发现与今天4月发布的Ubuntu 15.04中受到折纸启发的‘Suru’设计有什么差别。但是仔细看你就会发现默认背景有一些细微差别。 + +其中一点是更淡，受到由左上角图片发出的橘黄色光的帮助。保持了角褶皱和色块，但是增加了块和矩形部分。 + +新的背景由Canonica设计团队的Alex Milazzo设计。 + +![](http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ubuntu-1510-wily-werewolf-wallpaper.jpg) + +*Ubuntu 15.10 默认桌面背景* + +为了凸显变化，这个是Ubuntu 15.04的默认壁纸作为比较： + +![](http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/suru-desktop-wallpaper-ubuntu-vivid.jpg) + +*Ubuntu 15.04 默认壁纸* + +### 下载Ubuntu 15.10 壁纸 ### + +如果你正运行的是Ubuntu 15.10 Wily Werewolf每日构建版本，那么你无法看到这个默认壁纸：设计已经亮相但是还没有打包到Wily中。 + +你不必等到10月份来使用新的设计来作为你的桌面背景。你可以点击下面的按钮下载4096×2304高清壁纸。 + +- [下载Ubuntu 15.10新的默认壁纸][1] + +最后，如我们每次在有新壁纸时说的，你不必在意发布版品牌和设计细节。如果壁纸不合你的口味或者不想永远用它，轻易地就换掉，毕竟这不是Ubuntu Phone！ + +**你是新版本的粉丝么？在评论中让我们知道** + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/2015/09/ubuntu-15-10-wily-werewolf-default-wallpaper + +作者：[Joey-Elijah Sneddon][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://plus.google.com/117485690627814051450/?rel=author +[1]:https://launchpadlibrarian.net/218258177/Wolf_Wallpaper_Desktop_4096x2304_Purple_PNG-24.png diff --git a/published/20150925 HTTP 2 Now Fully Supported in NGINX Plus.md b/published/20150925 HTTP 2 Now Fully Supported in NGINX Plus.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f02b42b5a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/20150925 HTTP 2 Now Fully Supported in NGINX Plus.md @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ +NGINX Plus 现在完全支持 HTTP/2 +================================================================================ +早些时候，我们发布了支持 HTTP/2 协议的 [NGINX Plus R7][1]。作为 HTTP 协议的最新标准，HTTP/2 的设计为现在的 web 应用程序带来了更高的性能和安全性。（LCTT 译注： [开源版本的 NGINX 1.95 也支持 HTTP/2 了][18]。） + +NGINX Plus 所实现的 HTTP/2 协议可与现有的网站和应用程序进行无缝衔接。只需要一点改变，不管用户选择什么样的浏览器，NGINX Plus 都能为用户同时提供 HTTP/1.x 与HTTP/2 的最佳体验。 + +要支持 HTTP/2 仅需通过可选的 **nginx‑plus‑http2** 软件包。**nginx‑plus** 和 **nginx‑plus‑extras** 软件包支持 SPDY 协议，目前推荐用于生产站点，因为其被大多数浏览器所支持并且代码也是相当成熟了。 + +### 为什么要使用 HTTP/2？ ### + +HTTP/2 使数据传输更高效，对你的应用程序更安全。 HTTP/2 相比于 HTTP/1.x 有五个提高性能特点： + +- **完全复用** – 在一个保持激活（keepalive）的连接上，HTTP/1.1 强制按严格的顺序来处理请求。一个请求必须在下一个请求开始前结束。 HTTP/2 消除了这一要求，允许并行和乱序来处理请求。 + +- **单一，持久连接** – 由于 HTTP/2 允许请求完全复用，所以可以通过单一连接并行下载网页上的所有对象。在 HTTP/1.x 中，使用多个连接来并行下载资源，从而导致使用底层 TCP 协议效率很低。 + +- **二进制编码** – Header 信息使用紧凑的二进制格式发送，而不是纯文本格式，节省了传输字节。 + +- **Header 压缩** – Headers 使用专用的 HPACK 压缩算法来进行压缩，这进一步降低数据通过网络传输的字节。 + +- **SSL/TLS 加密** – 在 HTTP/2 中，强制使用 SSL/TLS。在 [RFC][2] 中并没有强制，其允许纯文本的 HTTP/2，但是当前所有实现 HTTP/2的 Web 浏览器都只支持加密。 SSL/TLS 可以使你的网站更安全，并且使用 HTTP/2 各项性能会有提升，加密和解密过程的性能损失就减少了。 + +要了解更多关于 HTTP/2: + +- 请阅读我们的 [白皮书][3]，它涵盖了你需要了解HTTP/2 的一切。 +- 下载由 Google 的 Ilya Grigorik 编写的 [特别版的高性能浏览器网络电子书][4] 。 + +### NGINX Plus 如何实现 HTTP/2 ### + +我们的 HTTP/2 实现是基于 SPDY 支持的，它已经被广泛部署（使用了 NGINX 或 NGINX Plus 的网站近 75％ 都使用了 SPDY）。使用 NGINX Plus 部署 HTTP/2 时，几乎不会改变你应用程序的配置。本节将讨论 NGINX Plus如何实现对 HTTP/2 的支持。 + +#### 一个 HTTP/2 网关 #### + +![](https://www.nginx.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/http2-27-1024x300.png) + +NGINX Plus 作为一个 HTTP/2 网关。它与支持 HTTP/2 的客户端 Web 浏览器用 HTTP/2 通讯，而转换 HTTP/2 请求给后端服务器通信时使用 HTTP/1.x（或者 FastCGI, SCGI, uWSGI, 等等. – 取决于你目前正在使用的协议）。 + +#### 向后兼容性 #### + +![](https://www.nginx.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/http2-281-1024x581.png) + +在一段时间内，你需要同时支持 HTTP/2 和 HTTP/1.x。在撰写本文时，超过50％的用户使用的 Web 浏览器已经[支持 HTTP/2][5]，但这也意味着近50％的人还没有使用。 + +为了同时支持 HTTP/1.x 和 HTTP/2，NGINX Plus 实现了 TLS 上的 Next Protocol Negotiation (NPN)扩展。当 Web 浏览器连接到服务器时，其将所支持的协议列表发送到服务器端。如果浏览器支持的协议列表中包括 h2 - 即 HTTP/2，NGINX Plus 将使用 HTTP/2 连接到浏览器。如果浏览器不支持 NPN 或在发送支持的协议列表中没有 h2，NGINX Plus 将继续回落到 HTTP/1.x。 + +### 转向 HTTP/2 ### + +NGINX 公司会尽可能帮助大家无缝过渡到使用 HTTP/2。本节介绍了通过对你应用进行改变来启用对 HTTP/2 支持，其中只需对 NGINX Plus 配置进行几个变化。 + +#### 前提条件 #### + +使用 **nginx‑plus‑http2** 软件包升级到 NGINX Plus R7。注意现在还没有支持 HTTP/2 版本的 **nginx‑plus‑extras** 软件包。 + +#### 重定向所有流量到 SSL/TLS #### + +如果你的应用尚未使用 SSL/TLS 加密，现在启用它正是一个好的时机。加密你的应用程序可以保护你免受间谍以及来自其他中间人的攻击。一些搜索引擎甚至在搜索结果中对加密站点[提高排名][6]。下面的配置块重定向所有的普通 HTTP 请求到该网站的加密版本。 + + server { + listen 80; + location / { + return 301 https://$host$request_uri; + } + } + +#### 启用 HTTP/2 #### + +要启用对 HTTP/2 的支持，只需将 http2 参数添加到所有的 [listen][7] 指令中，也要包括 SSL 参数，因为浏览器不支持不加密的 HTTP/2 请求。 + + server { + listen 443 ssl http2 default_server; + + ssl_certificate server.crt; + ssl_certificate_key server.key; + … + } + +如果有必要，重启 NGINX Plus，例如通过运行 `nginx -s reload` 命令。要验证 HTTP/2 是否正常工作，你可以在 [Google Chrome][8] 和 [Firefox][9] 中使用 “HTTP/2 and SPDY indicator” 插件来检查。 + +### 注意事项 ### + +- 在安装 **nginx‑plus‑http2** 包之前, 你必须删除配置文件中所有 listen 指令后的 SPDY 参数（使用 http2 和 ssl 参数来替换它以启用对 HTTP/2 的支持）。使用这个包后，如果 listen 指令后有 spdy 参数，NGINX Plus 将无法启动。 + +- 如果你在 NGINX Plus 前端使用了 Web 应用防火墙（WAF），请确保它能够解析 HTTP/2，或者把它移到 NGINX Plus 后面。 + +- 此版本不支持在 HTTP/2 RFC 中定义的 “Server Push” 特性。 NGINX Plus 以后的版本可能会支持它。 + +- NGINX Plus R7 同时支持 SPDY 和 HTTP/2（LCTT 译注：但是你只能同时使用其中一种）。在以后的版本中，我们将弃用对 SPDY 的支持。谷歌在2016年初将 [弃用 SPDY][10]，因此同时支持这两种协议也非必要。 + +- 如果 [ssl_prefer_server_ciphers][11] 设置为 on 或者使用了定义在 [Appendix A: TLS 1.2 Ciper Suite Black List][13] 中的 [ssl_ciphers][12] 列表时，浏览器会出现 handshake-errors 而无法正常工作。详细内容请参阅 [section 9.2.2 of the HTTP/2 RFC][14]。 + +### 特别感谢 ### + +NGINX 公司要感谢 [Dropbox][15] 和 [Automattic][16]，他们是我们软件的重度使用者，并帮助我们实现 HTTP/2。他们的贡献帮助我们加速完成这个软件，我们希望你也能支持他们。 + +![](https://www.nginx.com/wp-content/themes/nginx-theme/assets/img/landing-page/highperf_nginx_ebook.png) + +[O'REILLY'S BOOK ABOUT HTTP/2 & PERFORMANCE TUNING][17] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.nginx.com/blog/http2-r7/ + +作者：[Faisal Memon][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/author/fmemon/ +[1]:https://www.nginx.com/blog/nginx-plus-r7-released/ +[2]:https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7540 +[3]:https://www.nginx.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/NGINX_HTTP2_White_Paper_v4.pdf +[4]:https://www.nginx.com/http2-ebook/ +[5]:http://caniuse.com/#feat=http2 +[6]:http://googlewebmastercentral.blogspot.co.uk/2014/08/https-as-ranking-signal.html +[7]:http://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_core_module.html#listen +[8]:https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/http2-and-spdy-indicator/mpbpobfflnpcgagjijhmgnchggcjblin?hl=en +[9]:https://addons.mozilla.org/en-us/firefox/addon/spdy-indicator/ +[10]:http://blog.chromium.org/2015/02/hello-http2-goodbye-spdy-http-is_9.html +[11]:http://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_ssl_module.html#ssl_prefer_server_ciphers +[12]:http://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_ssl_module.html#ssl_ciphers +[13]:https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7540#appendix-A +[14]:https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7540#section-9.2.2 +[15]:http://dropbox.com/ +[16]:http://automattic.com/ +[17]:https://www.nginx.com/http2-ebook/ +[18]:http://mailman.nginx.org/pipermail/nginx-announce/2015/000162.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/20150930 Install and use Ansible (Automation Tool) in CentOS 7.md b/published/20150930 Install and use Ansible (Automation Tool) in CentOS 7.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f80f6a6125 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/20150930 Install and use Ansible (Automation Tool) in CentOS 7.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +在 CentOS 7 中安装并使用自动化工具 Ansible +================================================================================ + +Ansible是一款为类Unix系统开发的自由开源的配置和自动化工具。它用Python写成，类似于Chef和Puppet，但是有一个不同和优点是我们不需要在节点中安装任何客户端。它使用SSH来和节点进行通信。 + +本篇中我们将在CentOS 7上安装并配置Ansible，并且尝试管理两个节点。 + +- **Ansible 服务端** – ansible.linuxtechi.com ( 192.168.1.15 ) + +- **节点** – 192.168.1.9 , 192.168.1.10 + +### 第一步： 设置EPEL仓库 ### + +Ansible仓库默认不在yum仓库中，因此我们需要使用下面的命令启用epel仓库。 + + [root@ansible ~]# rpm -iUvh http://dl.fedoraproject.org/pub/epel/7/x86_64/e/epel-release-7-5.noarch.rpm + +### 第二步： 使用yum安装Ansible ### + + [root@ansible ~]# yum install ansible + +安装完成后，检查ansible版本： + + [root@ansible ~]# ansible --version + +![ansible-version](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ansible-version.jpg) + +### 第三步： 设置用于节点鉴权的SSH密钥 ### + +在Ansible服务端生成密钥，并且复制公钥到节点中。 + + root@ansible ~]# ssh-keygen + +![ssh-keygen](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ssh-keygen.jpg) + +使用ssh-copy-id命令来复制Ansible公钥到节点中。 + +![ssh-copy-id-command](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ssh-copy-id-command.jpg) + +### 第四步：为Ansible定义节点的清单 ### + +文件 `/etc/ansible/hosts` 维护着Ansible中服务器的清单。 + + [root@ansible ~]# vi /etc/ansible/hosts + [test-servers] + 192.168.1.9 + 192.168.1.10 + +保存并退出文件。 + +主机文件示例如下： + +![ansible-host](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ansible-host.jpg) + +### 第五步：尝试在Ansible服务端运行命令 ### + +使用ping检查‘test-servers’或者ansible节点的连通性。 + + [root@ansible ~]# ansible -m ping 'test-servers' + +![ansible-ping](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ansible-ping.jpg) + +#### 执行shell命令 #### + +**例子1：检查Ansible节点的运行时间（uptime）** + + [root@ansible ~]# ansible -m command -a "uptime" 'test-servers' + +![ansible-uptime](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ansible-uptime.jpg) + +**例子2：检查节点的内核版本** + + [root@ansible ~]# ansible -m command -a "uname -r" 'test-servers' + +![kernel-version-ansible](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/kernel-version-ansible.jpg) + +**例子3：给节点增加用户** + + [root@ansible ~]# ansible -m command -a "useradd mark" 'test-servers' + [root@ansible ~]# ansible -m command -a "grep mark /etc/passwd" 'test-servers' + +![useradd-ansible](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/useradd-ansible.jpg) + +**例子4：重定向输出到文件中** + + [root@ansible ~]# ansible -m command -a "df -Th" 'test-servers' > /tmp/command-output.txt + +![redirecting-output-ansible](http://www.linuxtechi.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/redirecting-output-ansible.jpg) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.linuxtechi.com/install-and-use-ansible-in-centos-7/ + +作者：[Pradeep Kumar][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.linuxtechi.com/author/pradeep/ diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 01--Reviewing Essential Commands and System Documentation.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 01--Reviewing Essential Commands and System Documentation.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a2b540a8ad --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 01--Reviewing Essential Commands and System Documentation.md @@ -0,0 +1,313 @@ +RHCSA 系列（一）: 回顾基础命令及系统文档 +================================================================================ + +RHCSA (红帽认证系统工程师) 是由 RedHat 公司举行的认证考试，这家公司给商业公司提供开源操作系统和软件，除此之外，还为这些企业和机构提供支持、训练以及咨询服务等。 + +![RHCSA Exam Guide](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/RHCSA-Series-by-Tecmint.png) + +*RHCSA 考试准备指南* + +RHCSA 考试(考试编号 EX200)通过后可以获取由 RedHat 公司颁发的证书. RHCSA 考试是 RHCT(红帽认证技师)的升级版，而且 RHCSA 必须在新的 Red Hat Enterprise Linux(红帽企业版)下完成。RHCT 和 RHCSA 的主要变化就是 RHCT 基于 RHEL5，而 RHCSA 基于 RHEL6 或者7，这两个认证的等级也有所不同。 + +红帽认证管理员最起码可以在红帽企业版的环境下执行如下系统管理任务： + +- 理解并会使用命令管理文件、目录、命令行以及系统/软件包的文档 +- 在不同的启动等级操作运行中的系统，识别和控制进程，启动或停止虚拟机 +- 使用分区和逻辑卷管理本地存储 +- 创建并且配置本地文件系统和网络文件系统，设置他们的属性(权限、加密、访问控制表) +- 部署、配置、并且控制系统，包括安装、升级和卸载软件 +- 管理系统用户和组，以及使用集中制的 LDAP 目录进行用户验证 +- 确保系统安全，包括基础的防火墙规则和 SELinux 配置 + +关于你所在国家的考试注册和费用请参考 [RHCSA 认证页面][1]。 + +在这个有15章的 RHCSA(红帽认证管理员)备考系列中，我们将覆盖以下的关于红帽企业 Linux 第七版的最新的信息： + +- Part 1: 回顾基础命令及系统文档 +- Part 2: 在 RHEL7 中如何进行文件和目录管理 +- Part 3: 在 RHEL7 中如何管理用户和组 +- Part 4: 使用 nano 和 vim 管理命令，使用 grep 和正则表达式分析文本 +- Part 5: RHEL7 的进程管理：启动，关机，以及这之间的各种事情 +- Part 6: 使用 'Parted' 和 'SSM' 来管理和加密系统存储 +- Part 7: 使用 ACL(访问控制表)并挂载 Samba/NFS 文件分享 +- Part 8: 加固 SSH，设置主机名并开启网络服务 +- Part 9: 安装、配置和加固一个 Web 和 FTP 服务器 +- Part 10: Yum 包管理方式，使用 Cron 进行自动任务管理以及监控系统日志 +- Part 11: 使用 FirewallD 和 Iptables 设置防火墙，控制网络流量 +- Part 12: 使用 Kickstart 自动安装 RHEL 7 +- Part 13: RHEL7：什么是 SeLinux？他的原理是什么？ +- Part 14: 在 RHEL7 中使用基于 LDAP 的权限控制 +- Part 15: 虚拟化基础和用KVM管理虚拟机 + +在第一章，我们讲解如何在终端或者 Shell 窗口输入和运行正确的命令，并且讲解如何找到、查阅，以及使用系统文档。 + +![RHCSA: Reviewing Essential Linux Commands – Part 1](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Reviewing-Essential-Linux-Commands.png) + +*RHCSA：回顾必会的 Linux 命令 - 第一部分* + +#### 前提: #### + +至少你要熟悉如下命令 + +- [cd 命令][2] (改变目录) +- [ls 命令][3] (列举文件) +- [cp 命令][4] (复制文件) +- [mv 命令][5] (移动或重命名文件) +- [touch 命令][6] (创建一个新的文件或更新已存在文件的时间表) +- rm 命令 (删除文件) +- mkdir 命令 (创建目录) + +在这篇文章中你将会找到更多的关于如何更好的使用他们的正确用法和特殊用法. + +虽然没有严格的要求，但是作为讨论常用的 Linux 命令和在 Linux 中搜索信息方法，你应该安装 RHEL7 来尝试使用文章中提到的命令。这将会使你学习起来更省力。 + +- [红帽企业版 Linux(RHEL)7 安装指南][7] + +### 使用 Shell 进行交互 ### + +如果我们使用文本模式登录 Linux，我们就会直接进入到我们的默认 shell 中。另一方面，如果我们使用图形化界面登录，我们必须通过启动一个终端来开启 shell。无论那种方式，我们都会看到用户提示符，并且我们可以在这里输入并且执行命令(当按下回车时，命令就会被执行)。 + +命令是由两个部分组成的： + +- 命令本身 +- 参数 + +某些参数，称为选项（通常使用一个连字符开头），会改变命令的行为方式，而另外一些则指定了命令所操作的对象。 + +type 命令可以帮助我们识别某一个特定的命令是由 shell 内置的还是由一个单独的包提供的。这样的区别在于我们能够在哪里找到更多关于该命令的更多信息。对 shell 内置的命令，我们需要看 shell 的手册页；如果是其他的，我们需要看软件包自己的手册页。 + +![Check Shell built in Commands](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Check-shell-built-in-Commands.png) + +*检查Shell的内置命令* + +在上面的例子中， `cd` 和 `type` 是 shell 内置的命令，`top` 和 `less` 是由 shell 之外的其他的二进制文件提供的(在这种情况下，type将返回命令的位置)。 + +其他的内置命令： + +- [echo 命令][8]: 展示字符串 +- [pwd 命令][9]: 输出当前的工作目录 + +![More Built in Shell Commands](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/More-Built-in-Shell-Commands.png) + +*其它内置命令* + +**exec 命令** + +它用来运行我们指定的外部程序。请注意在多数情况下，只需要输入我们想要运行的程序的名字就行，不过` exec` 命令有一个特殊的特性：不是在 shell 之外创建新的进程运行，而是这个新的进程会替代原来的 shell，可以通过下列命令来验证。 + + # ps -ef | grep [shell 进程的PID] + +当新的进程终止时，Shell 也随之终止。运行 `exec top` ，然后按下 `q` 键来退出 top，你会注意到 shell 会话也同时终止，如下面的屏幕录像展示的那样: + + + +**export 命令** + +给之后执行的命令的输出环境变量。 + +**history 命令** + +展示数行之前的历史命令。命令编号前面前缀上感叹号可以再次执行这个命令。如果我们需要编辑历史列表中的命令，我们可以按下 `Ctrl + r` 并输入与命令相关的第一个字符。我们可以看到的命令会自动补全，可以根据我们目前的需要来编辑它： + + + +命令列表会保存在一个叫 `.bash_history` 的文件里。`history` 命令是一个非常有用的用于减少输入次数的工具，特别是进行命令行编辑的时候。默认情况下，bash 保留最后输入的500个命令，不过可以通过修改 HISTSIZE 环境变量来增加: + +![Linux history Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-history-Command.png) + +*Linux history 命令* + +但上述变化，在我们的下一次启动不会保留。为了保持 HISTSIZE 变量的变化，我们需要通过手工修改文件编辑： + + # 要设置 history 长度，请看 bash(1)文档中的 HISTSIZE 和 HISTFILESIZE + HISTSIZE=1000 + +**重要**： 我们的更改不会立刻生效，除非我们重启了 shell 。 + +**alias 命令** + +没有参数或使用 `-p` 选项时将会以“名称=值”的标准形式输出别名列表。当提供了参数时，就会按照给定的名字和值定义一个别名。 + +使用 `alias` ，我们可以创建我们自己的命令，或使用所需的参数修改现有的命令。举个例子，假设我们将 `ls` 定义别名为 `ls –color=auto` ，这样就可以使用不同颜色输出文件、目录、链接等等。 + + + # alias ls='ls --color=auto' + +![Linux alias Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-alias-Command.png) + +*Linux 别名命令* + +**注意**： 你可以给你的“新命令”起任何的名字，并且使用单引号包括很多命令，但是你要用分号区分开它们。如下： + + # alias myNewCommand='cd /usr/bin; ls; cd; clear' + +**exit 命令** + +`exit` 和 `logout` 命令都可以退出 shell 。`exit` 命令可以退出所有的 shell，`logout` 命令只注销登录的 shell（即你用文本模式登录时自动启动的那个）。 + +**man 和 info 命令** +如果你对某个程序有疑问，可以参考它的手册页，可以使用 `man` 命令调出它。此外，还有一些关于重要文件(inittab、fstab、hosts 等等)、库函数、shell、设备及其他功能的手册页。 + +举例: + +- man uname (输出系统信息，如内核名称、处理器、操作系统类型、架构等) +- man inittab (初始化守护进程的设置) + +另外一个重要的信息的来源是由 `info` 命令提供的，`info` 命令常常被用来读取 info 文件。这些文件往往比手册页 提供了更多信息。可以通过 `info keyword` 调用某个命令的信息： + + # info ls + # info cut + +另外，在 `/usr/share/doc` 文件夹包含了大量的子目录，里面可以找到大量的文档。它们是文本文件或其他可读格式。 + +你要习惯于使用这三种方法去查找命令的信息。重点关注每个命令文档中介绍的详细的语法。 + +**使用 expand 命令把制表符转换为空格** + +有时候文本文档包含了制表符，但是程序无法很好的处理。或者我们只是简单的希望将制表符转换成空格。这就是用到 `expand` 地方(由GNU核心组件包提供) 。 + +举个例子，我们有个文件 NumberList.txt，让我们使用 `expand` 处理它，将制表符转换为一个空格，并且显示在标准输出上。 + + # expand --tabs=1 NumbersList.txt + +![Linux expand Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-expand-Command.png) + +*Linux expand 命令* + +unexpand命令可以实现相反的功能(将空格转为制表符) + +**使用 head 输出文件首行及使用 tail 输出文件尾行** + +通常情况下，`head` 命令后跟着文件名时，将会输出该文件的前十行，我们可以通过 `-n` 参数来自定义具体的行数。 + + # head -n3 /etc/passwd + # tail -n3 /etc/passwd + +![Linux head and tail Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-head-and-tail-Command.png) + +*Linux 的 head 和 tail 命令* + +`tail` 最有意思的一个特性就是能够显示增长的输入文件(`tail -f my.log`，my.log 是我们需要监视的文件。)这在我们监控一个持续增加的日志文件时非常有用。 + +- [使用 head 和 tail 命令有效地管理文件][10] + +**使用 paste 按行合并文本文件** + +`paste` 命令一行一行的合并文件，默认会以制表符来区分每个文件的行，或者你可以自定义的其它分隔符。(下面的例子就是输出中的字段使用等号分隔)。 + + # paste -d= file1 file2 + +![Merge Files in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Merge-Files-in-Linux-with-paste-command.png) + +*Linux 中的 merge 命令* + +**使用 split 命令将文件分块** + +`split` 命令常常用于把一个文件切割成两个或多个由我们自定义的前缀命名的文件。可以根据大小、区块、行数等进行切割，生成的文件会有一个数字或字母的后缀。在下面的例子中，我们将切割 bash.pdf ，每个文件 50KB (-b 50KB)，使用数字后缀 (-d)： + + # split -b 50KB -d bash.pdf bash_ + +![Split Files in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Split-Files-in-Linux-with-split-command.png) + +*在 Linux 下切割文件* + +你可以使用如下命令来合并这些文件，生成原来的文件: + + # cat bash_00 bash_01 bash_02 bash_03 bash_04 bash_05 > bash.pdf + +**使用 tr 命令替换字符** + +`tr` 命令多用于一对一的替换（改变）字符，或者使用字符范围。和之前一样，下面的实例我们将使用之前的同样文件file2，我们将做： + +- 小写字母 o 变成大写 +- 所有的小写字母都变成大写字母 + +- + # cat file2 | tr o O + # cat file2 | tr [a-z] [A-Z] + +![Translate Characters in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Translate-characters-in-Linux-with-tr-command.png) + +*在 Linux 中替换字符* + +**使用 uniq 和 sort 检查或删除重复的文字** + +`uniq` 命令可以帮我们查出或删除文件中的重复的行，默认会输出到标准输出，我们应当注意，`uniq`只能查出相邻的相同行，所以，`uniq` 往往和 `sort` 一起使用(`sort` 一般用于对文本文件的内容进行排序) + +默认情况下，`sort` 以第一个字段(使用空格分隔)为关键字段。想要指定不同关键字段，我们需要使用 -k 参数，请注意如何使用 `sort` 和 `uniq` 输出我们想要的字段，具体可以看下面的例子： + + # cat file3 + # sort file3 | uniq + # sort -k2 file3 | uniq + # sort -k3 file3 | uniq + +![删除文件中重复的行](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Remove-Duplicate-Lines-in-file.png) + +*删除文件中重复的行* + +**从文件中提取文本的命令** + +`cut` 命令基于字节(-b)、字符(-c)、或者字段(-f)的数量，从输入文件（标准输入或文件）中提取到的部分将会以标准输出上。 + +当我们使用字段 `cut` 时，默认的分隔符是一个制表符，不过你可以通过 -d 参数来自定义分隔符。 + + # cut -d: -f1,3 /etc/passwd # 这个例子提取了第一和第三字段的文本 + # cut -d: -f2-4 /etc/passwd # 这个例子提取了第二到第四字段的文本 + +![从文件中提取文本](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Extract-Text-from-a-file.png) + +*从文件中提取文本* + +注意，简洁起见，上方的两个输出的结果是截断的。 + +**使用 fmt 命令重新格式化文件** + +`fmt` 被用于去“清理”有大量内容或行的文件，或者有多级缩进的文件。新的段落格式每行不会超过75个字符宽，你能通过 -w (width 宽度)参数改变这个设定，它可以设置行宽为一个特定的数值。 + +举个例子，让我们看看当我们用 `fmt` 显示定宽为100个字符的时候的文件 /etc/passwd 时会发生什么。再次，输出截断了。 + + # fmt -w100 /etc/passwd + +![File Reformatting in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/File-Reformatting-in-Linux-with-fmt-command.png) + +*Linux 文件重新格式化* + +**使用 pr 命令格式化打印内容** + +`pr` 分页并且在按列或多列的方式显示一个或多个文件。 换句话说，使用 `pr` 格式化一个文件使它打印出来时看起来更好。举个例子，下面这个命令： + + # ls -a /etc | pr -n --columns=3 -h "Files in /etc" + +以一个友好的排版方式(3列)输出/etc下的文件，自定义了页眉(通过 -h 选项实现)、行号(-n)。 + +![File Formatting in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/File-Formatting-in-Linux-with-pr-command.png) + +*Linux的文件格式化* + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们已经讨论了如何在 Shell 或终端以正确的语法输入和执行命令，并解释如何找到，查阅和使用系统文档。正如你看到的一样简单，这就是你成为 RHCSA 的第一大步。 + +如果你希望添加一些其他的你经常使用的能够有效帮你完成你的日常工作的基础命令，并愿意分享它们，请在下方留言。也欢迎提出问题。我们期待您的回复。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-reviewing-essential-commands-system-documentation/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[xiqingongzi](https://github.com/xiqingongzi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:https://www.redhat.com/en/services/certification/rhcsa +[2]:http://linux.cn/article-2479-1.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-5109-1.html +[4]:http://linux.cn/article-2687-1.html +[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/rename-multiple-files-in-linux/ +[6]:http://linux.cn/article-2740-1.html +[7]:http://www.tecmint.com/redhat-enterprise-linux-7-installation/ +[8]:https://linux.cn/article-3948-1.html +[9]:https://linux.cn/article-3422-1.html +[10]:http://www.tecmint.com/view-contents-of-file-in-linux/ diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 02--How to Perform File and Directory Management.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 02--How to Perform File and Directory Management.md similarity index 59% rename from translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 02--How to Perform File and Directory Management.md rename to published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 02--How to Perform File and Directory Management.md index f46fd93321..8751949b40 100644 --- a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 02--How to Perform File and Directory Management.md +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 02--How to Perform File and Directory Management.md @@ -1,68 +1,63 @@ -RHCSA 系列: 如何执行文件并进行文件管理 – Part 2 +RHCSA 系列（二）: 如何进行文件和目录管理 ================================================================================ -在本篇(RHCSA 第二篇:文件和目录管理)中，我们江回顾一些系统管理员日常任务需要的技能 +在本篇中，我们将回顾一些系统管理员日常任务需要的技能。 ![RHCSA: Perform File and Directory Management – Part 2](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/RHCSA-Part2.png) +*RHCSA： 运行文件以及进行文件夹管理 - 第二部分* -RHCSA : 运行文件以及进行文件夹管理 - 第二章 -### 创建，删除，复制和移动文件及目录 ### +### 创建、删除、复制和移动文件及目录 ### -文件和目录管理是每一个系统管理员都应该掌握的必要的技能.它包括了从头开始的创建、删除文本文件(每个程序的核心配置)以及目录(你用来组织文件和其他目录)，以及识别存在的文件的类型 +文件和目录管理是每一个系统管理员都应该掌握的必备技能。它包括了从头开始的创建、删除文本文件（每个程序的核心配置）以及目录（你用来组织文件和其它目录），以及识别已有文件的类型。 - [touch 命令][1] 不仅仅能用来创建空文件，还能用来更新已存在的文件的权限和时间表 +[`touch` 命令][1] 不仅仅能用来创建空文件，还能用来更新已有文件的访问时间和修改时间。 ![touch command example](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/touch-command-example.png) -touch 命令示例 +*touch 命令示例* -你可以使用 `file [filename]`来判断一个文件的类型 (在你用文本编辑器编辑之前，判断类型将会更方便编辑). +你可以使用 `file [filename]`来判断一个文件的类型 (在你用文本编辑器编辑之前，判断类型将会更方便编辑)。 ![file command example](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/file-command-example.png) -file 命令示例 +*file 命令示例* -使用`rm [filename]` 可以删除文件 +使用`rm [filename]` 可以删除文件。 ![Linux rm command examples](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/rm-command-examples.png) -rm 命令示例 - -对于目录，你可以使用`mkdir [directory]`在已经存在的路径中创建目录,或者使用 `mkdir -p [/full/path/to/directory].`带全路径创建文件夹 +*rm 命令示例* +对于目录，你可以使用`mkdir [directory]`在已经存在的路径中创建目录，或者使用 `mkdir -p [/full/path/to/directory]`带全路径创建文件夹。 ![mkdir command example](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/mkdir-command-example.png) -mkdir 命令示例 +*mkdir 命令示例* -当你想要去删除目录时，在你使用`rmdir [directory]` 前，你需要先确保目录是空的，或者使用更加强力的命令(小心使用它)`rm -rf [directory]`.后者会强制删除`[directory]`以及他的内容.所以使用这个命令存在一定的风险 +当你想要去删除目录时，在你使用`rmdir [directory]` 前，你需要先确保目录是空的，或者使用更加强力的命令(小心使用它！)`rm -rf [directory]`。后者会强制删除`[directory]`以及它的内容，所以使用这个命令存在一定的风险。 ### 输入输出重定向以及管道 ### -命令行环境提供了两个非常有用的功能:允许命令重定向的输入和输出到文件和发送到另一个文件,分别称为重定向和管道 +命令行环境提供了两个非常有用的功能：允许重定向命令的输入和输出为另一个文件，以及发送命令的输出到另一个命令，这分别称为重定向和管道。 -To understand those two important concepts, we must first understand the three most important types of I/O (Input and Output) streams (or sequences) of characters, which are in fact special files, in the *nix sense of the word. -为了理解这两个重要概念，我们首先需要理解通常情况下三个重要的输入输出流的形式 +为了理解这两个重要概念，我们首先需要理解三个最重要的字符输入输出流类型，以 *nix 的话来说，它们实际上是特殊的文件。 -- 标准输入 (aka stdin) 是指默认使用键盘链接. 换句话说，键盘是输入命令到命令行的标准输入设备。 -- 标准输出 (aka stdout) 是指默认展示再屏幕上, 显示器接受输出命令，并且展示在屏幕上。 -- 标准错误 (aka stderr), 是指命令的状态默认输出, 同时也会展示在屏幕上 +- 标准输入 (即 stdin)，默认连接到键盘。 换句话说，键盘是输入命令到命令行的标准输入设备。 +- 标准输出 (即 stdout)，默认连接到屏幕。 找个设备“接受”命令的输出，并展示到屏幕上。 +- 标准错误 (即 stderr)，默认是命令的状态消息出现的地方，它也是屏幕。 -In the following example, the output of `ls /var` is sent to stdout (the screen), as well as the result of ls /tecmint. But in the latter case, it is stderr that is shown. -在下面的例子中，`ls /var`的结果被发送到stdout(屏幕展示)，就像ls /tecmint 的结果。但在后一种情况下，它是标准错误输出。 +在下面的例子中，`ls /var`的结果被发送到stdout(屏幕展示)，ls /tecmint 的结果也一样。但在后一种情况下，它显示在标准错误输出上。 ![Linux input output redirect](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Linux-input-output-redirect.png) -输入和输出命令实例 -为了更容易识别这些特殊文件，每个文件都被分配有一个文件描述符(用于控制他们的抽象标识)。主要要理解的是，这些文件就像其他人一样，可以被重定向。这就意味着你可以从一个文件或脚本中捕获输出，并将它传送到另一个文件、命令或脚本中。你就可以在在磁盘上存储命令的输出结果，用于稍后的分析 +*输入和输出命令实例* -To redirect stdin (fd 0), stdout (fd 1), or stderr (fd 2), the following operators are available. +为了更容易识别这些特殊文件，每个文件都被分配有一个文件描述符，这是用于访问它们的抽象标识。主要要理解的是，这些文件就像其它的一样，可以被重定向。这就意味着你可以从一个文件或脚本中捕获输出，并将它传送到另一个文件、命令或脚本中。这样你就可以在磁盘上存储命令的输出结果，用于稍后的分析。 -注：表格 - - - +要重定向 stdin (fd 0)、 stdout (fd 1) 或 stderr (fd 2)，可以使用如下操作符。 + +
@@ -70,102 +65,98 @@ To redirect stdin (fd 0), stdout (fd 1), or stderr (fd 2), the following operato - + - + - + - + - + - + - +
转向操作
>标准输出到一个文件。如果目标文件存在，内容就会被重写重定向标准输出到一个文件。如果目标文件存在，内容就会被重写。
>>添加标准输出到文件尾部添加标准输出到文件尾部。
2>标准错误输出到一个文件。如果目标文件存在，内容就会被重写重定向标准错误输出到一个文件。如果目标文件存在，内容就会被重写。
2>>添加标准错误输出到文件尾部.添加标准错误输出到文件尾部。
&>标准错误和标准输出都到一个文件。如果目标文件存在，内容就会被重写重定向标准错误和标准输出到一个文件。如果目标文件存在，内容就会被重写。
<使用特定的文件做标准输出使用特定的文件做标准输入。
<>使用特定的文件做标准输出和标准错误使用特定的文件做标准输入和标准输出。
- -相比与重定向，管道是通过在命令后添加一个竖杠`(|)`再添加另一个命令 . +与重定向相比，管道是通过在命令后和另外一个命令前之间添加一个竖杠`(|)`。 记得: -- 重定向是用来定向命令的输出到一个文件，或定向一个文件作为输入到一个命令。 -- 管道是用来将命令的输出转发到另一个命令作为输入。 +- *重定向*是用来定向命令的输出到一个文件，或把一个文件发送作为到一个命令的输入。 +- *管道*是用来将命令的输出转发到另一个命令作为其输入。 #### 重定向和管道的使用实例 #### -** 例1：将一个命令的输出到文件 ** +**例1：将一个命令的输出到文件** -有些时候，你需要遍历一个文件列表。要做到这样，你可以先将该列表保存到文件中，然后再按行读取该文件。虽然你可以遍历直接ls的输出，不过这个例子是用来说明重定向。 +有些时候，你需要遍历一个文件列表。要做到这样，你可以先将该列表保存到文件中，然后再按行读取该文件。虽然你可以直接遍历ls的输出，不过这个例子是用来说明重定向。 # ls -1 /var/mail > mail.txt ![Redirect output of command tot a file](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Redirect-output-to-a-file.png) -将一个命令的输出到文件 +*将一个命令的输出重定向到文件* -** 例2：重定向stdout和stderr到/dev/null ** +**例2：重定向stdout和stderr到/dev/null** -如果不想让标准输出和标准错误展示在屏幕上，我们可以把文件描述符重定向到 `/dev/null` 请注意在执行这个命令时该如何更改输出 +如果不想让标准输出和标准错误展示在屏幕上，我们可以把这两个文件描述符重定向到 `/dev/null`。请注意对于同样的命令，重定向是如何改变了输出。 # ls /var /tecmint # ls /var/ /tecmint &> /dev/null ![Redirecting stdout and stderr ouput to /dev/null](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Redirecting-stdout-stderr-ouput.png) -重定向stdout和stderr到/dev/null +*重定向stdout和stderr到/dev/null* -#### 例3：使用一个文件作为命令的输入 #### +**例3：使用一个文件作为命令的输入** -当官方的[cat 命令][2]的语法如下时 +[cat 命令][2]的经典用法如下 # cat [file(s)] -您还可以使用正确的重定向操作符传送一个文件作为输入。 +您还可以使用正确的重定向操作符发送一个文件作为输入。 # cat < mail.txt ![Linux cat command examples](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/cat-command-examples.png) -cat 命令实例 +*cat 命令实例* -#### 例4：发送一个命令的输出作为另一个命令的输入 #### +**例4：发送一个命令的输出作为另一个命令的输入** -如果你有一个较大的目录或进程列表，并且想快速定位，你或许需要将列表通过管道传送给grep +如果你有一个较大的目录或进程列表，并且想快速定位，你或许需要将列表通过管道传送给grep。 -接下来我们使用管道在下面的命令中，第一个是查找所需的关键词，第二个是除去产生的 `grep command`.这个例子列举了所有与apache用户有关的进程 +接下来我们会在下面的命令中使用管道，第一个管道是查找所需的关键词，第二个管道是除去产生的 `grep command`。这个例子列举了所有与apache用户有关的进程： # ps -ef | grep apache | grep -v grep ![Send output of command as input to another](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Send-output-of-command-as-input-to-another1.png) -发送一个命令的输出作为另一个命令的输入 +*发送一个命令的输出作为另一个命令的输入* ### 归档，压缩，解包，解压文件 ### -如果你需要传输，备份，或者通过邮件发送一组文件，你可以使用一个存档（或文件夹）如 [tar][3]工具，通常使用gzip，bzip2，或XZ压缩工具. +如果你需要传输、备份、或者通过邮件发送一组文件，你可以使用一个存档（或打包）工具，如 [tar][3]，通常与gzip，bzip2，或 xz 等压缩工具配合使用。 -您选择的压缩工具每一个都有自己的定义的压缩速度和速率的。这三种压缩工具，gzip是最古老和提供最小压缩的工具，bzip2提供经过改进的压缩，以及XZ提供最信和最好的压缩。通常情况下，这些文件都是被压缩的如.gz .bz2或.xz -注：表格 - - - - +您选择的压缩工具每一个都有自己不同的压缩速度和压缩率。这三种压缩工具，gzip是最古老和可以较小压缩的工具，bzip2提供经过改进的压缩，以及xz是最新的而且压缩最大。通常情况下，使用这些压缩工具压缩的文件的扩展名依次是.gz、.bz2或.xz。 + +
@@ -180,12 +171,12 @@ cat 命令实例 - + - + @@ -195,26 +186,22 @@ cat 命令实例 - + - + - +
命令
–concatenate A向归档中添加tar文件添加tar归档到另外一个归档中
–append r向归档中添加非tar文件添加非tar归档到另外一个归档中
–update
–diff or –compare d将归档和硬盘的文件夹进行对比将归档中的文件和硬盘的文件进行对比
–list t列举一个tar的压缩包列举一个tar压缩包的内容
–extract or –get x从归档中解压文件从归档中提取文件
-注：表格 - - - - +
@@ -234,34 +221,34 @@ cat 命令实例 - + - + - + - + - +
操作参数
–verbose v列举所有文件用于读取或提取，这里包含列表，并显示文件的大小、所有权和时间戳列举所有读取或提取的文件，如果和 --list 参数一起使用，也会显示文件的大小、所有权和时间戳
—exclude file —排除存档文件。在这种情况下，文件可以是一个实际的文件或目录。从存档中排除文件。在这种情况下，文件可以是一个实际的文件或匹配模式。
—gzip or —gunzip z使用gzip压缩文件使用gzip压缩归档
–bzip2 j使用bzip2压缩文件使用bzip2压缩归档
–xz J使用xz压缩文件使用xz压缩归档
-#### 例5：创建一个文件，然后使用三种压缩工具压缩#### +**例5：创建一个tar文件，然后使用三种压缩工具压缩** -在决定使用一个或另一个工具之前，您可能想比较每个工具的压缩效率。请注意压缩小文件或几个文件，结果可能不会有太大的差异，但可能会给你看出他们的差异 +在决定使用这个还是那个工具之前，您可能想比较每个工具的压缩效率。请注意压缩小文件或几个文件，结果可能不会有太大的差异，但可能会给你看出它们的差异。 # tar cf ApacheLogs-$(date +%Y%m%d).tar /var/log/httpd/* # Create an ordinary tarball # tar czf ApacheLogs-$(date +%Y%m%d).tar.gz /var/log/httpd/* # Create a tarball and compress with gzip @@ -270,42 +257,42 @@ cat 命令实例 ![Linux tar command examples](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/tar-command-examples.png) -tar 命令实例 +*tar 命令实例* -#### 例6：归档时同时保存原始权限和所有权 #### +**例6：归档时同时保存原始权限和所有权** -如果你创建的是用户的主目录的备份，你需要要存储的个人文件与原始权限和所有权，而不是通过改变他们的用户帐户或守护进程来执行备份。下面的命令可以在归档时保留文件属性 +如果你正在从用户的主目录创建备份，你需要要存储的个人文件与原始权限和所有权，而不是通过改变它们的用户帐户或守护进程来执行备份。下面的命令可以在归档时保留文件属性。 # tar cJf ApacheLogs-$(date +%Y%m%d).tar.xz /var/log/httpd/* --same-permissions --same-owner ### 创建软连接和硬链接 ### -在Linux中，有2种类型的链接文件：硬链接和软（也称为符号）链接。因为硬链接文件代表另一个名称是由同一点确定，然后链接到实际的数据；符号链接指向的文件名，而不是实际的数据 +在Linux中，有2种类型的链接文件：硬链接和软（也称为符号）链接。因为硬链接文件只是现存文件的另一个名字，使用相同的 inode 号，它指向实际的数据；而符号链接只是指向的文件名。 -此外，硬链接不占用磁盘上的空间，而符号链接做占用少量的空间来存储的链接本身的文本。硬链接的缺点就是要求他们必须在同一个innode内。而符号链接没有这个限制，符号链接因为只保存了文件名和目录名,所以可以跨文件系统. +此外，硬链接不占用磁盘上的空间，而符号链接则占用少量的空间来存储的链接本身的文本。硬链接的缺点就是要求它们必须在同一个文件系统内，因为 inode 在一个文件系统内是唯一的。而符号链接没有这个限制，它们通过文件名而不是 inode 指向其它文件或目录，所以可以跨文件系统。 创建链接的基本语法看起来是相似的： # ln TARGET LINK_NAME #从Link_NAME到Target的硬链接 # ln -s TARGET LINK_NAME #从Link_NAME到Target的软链接 -#### 例7：创建硬链接和软链接 #### +**例7：创建硬链接和软链接** -没有更好的方式来形象的说明一个文件和一个指向它的符号链接的关系，而不是创建这些链接。在下面的截图中你会看到文件的硬链接指向它共享相同的节点都是由466个字节的磁盘使用情况确定。 +没有更好的方式来形象的说明一个文件和一个指向它的硬链接或符号链接的关系，而不是创建这些链接。在下面的截图中你会看到文件和指向它的硬链接共享相同的inode，都是使用了相同的466个字节的磁盘。 -另一方面，在别的磁盘创建一个硬链接将占用5个字节，并不是说你将耗尽存储容量，而是这个例子足以说明一个硬链接和软链接之间的区别。 +另一方面，在别的磁盘创建一个硬链接将占用5个字节，这并不是说你将耗尽存储容量，而是这个例子足以说明一个硬链接和软链接之间的区别。 ![Difference between a hard link and a soft link](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/hard-soft-link.png) -软连接和硬链接之间的不同 +*软连接和硬链接之间的不同* -符号链接的典型用法是在Linux系统的版本文件参考。假设有需要一个访问文件foo X.Y 想图书馆一样经常被访问，你想更新一个就可以而不是更新所有的foo X.Y,这时使用软连接更为明智和安全。有文件被看成foo X.Y的链接符号，从而找到foo X.Y +在Linux系统上符号链接的典型用法是指向一个带版本的文件。假设有几个程序需要访问文件fooX.Y，但麻烦是版本经常变化（像图书馆一样）。每次版本更新时我们都需要更新指向 fooX.Y 的单一引用，而更安全、更快捷的方式是，我们可以让程序寻找名为 foo 的符号链接，它实际上指向 fooX.Y。 -这样的话，当你的X和Y发生变化后，你只需更新一个文件，而不是更新每个文件。 +这样的话，当你的X和Y发生变化后，你只需更新符号链接 foo 到新的目标文件，而不用跟踪每个对目标文件的使用并更新。 ### 总结 ### -在这篇文章中，我们回顾了一些基本的文件和目录管理技能，这是每个系统管理员的工具集的一部分。请确保阅读了本系列的其他部分，以及复习并将这些主题与本教程所涵盖的内容相结合。 +在这篇文章中，我们回顾了一些基本的文件和目录管理技能，这是每个系统管理员的工具集的一部分。请确保阅读了本系列的其它部分，并将这些主题与本教程所涵盖的内容相结合。 如果你有任何问题或意见，请随时告诉我们。我们总是很高兴从读者那获取反馈. @@ -315,11 +302,11 @@ via: http://www.tecmint.com/file-and-directory-management-in-linux/ 作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] 译者：[xiqingongzi](https://github.com/xiqingongzi) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 [a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/8-pratical-examples-of-linux-touch-command/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-2740-1.html [2]:http://www.tecmint.com/13-basic-cat-command-examples-in-linux/ [3]:http://www.tecmint.com/18-tar-command-examples-in-linux/ diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 03--How to Manage Users and Groups in RHEL 7.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 03--How to Manage Users and Groups in RHEL 7.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..cbe4f0bdc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 03--How to Manage Users and Groups in RHEL 7.md @@ -0,0 +1,248 @@ +RHCSA 系列（三）: 如何管理 RHEL7 的用户和组 +================================================================================ + +和管理其它Linux服务器一样，管理一个 RHEL 7 服务器要求你能够添加、修改、暂停或删除用户帐户，并且授予他们执行其分配的任务所需的文件、目录、其它系统资源所必要的权限。 + +![User and Group Management in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/User-and-Group-Management-in-Linux.png) + +*RHCSA: 用户和组管理 – Part 3* + +###管理用户帐户## + +如果想要给RHEL 7 服务器添加账户，你需要以root用户执行如下两条命令之一： + + # adduser [new_account] + # useradd [new_account] + +当添加新的用户帐户时，默认会执行下列操作。 + +- 它/她的主目录就会被创建(一般是"/home/用户名"，除非你特别设置) +- 一些隐藏文件 如`.bash_logout`, `.bash_profile` 以及 `.bashrc` 会被复制到用户的主目录，它们会为用户的回话提供环境变量。你可以进一步查看它们的相关细节。 +- 会为您的账号添加一个邮件池目录。 +- 会创建一个和用户名同样的组（LCTT 译注：除非你给新创建的用户指定了组）。 + +用户帐户的全部信息被保存在`/etc/passwd`文件。这个文件以如下格式保存了每一个系统帐户的所有信息(字段以“:”分割) + + [username]:[x]:[UID]:[GID]:[Comment]:[Home directory]:[Default shell] + +- `[username]` 和`[Comment]` 其意自明，就是用户名和备注 +- 第二个‘x’表示帐户的启用了密码保护(记录在`/etc/shadow`文件)，密码用于登录`[username]` +- `[UID]` 和`[GID]`是整数，它们表明了`[username]`的用户ID 和所属的主组ID + +最后。 + +- `[Home directory]`显示`[username]`的主目录的绝对路径 +- `[Default shell]` 是当用户登录系统后使用的默认shell + +另外一个你必须要熟悉的重要的文件是存储组信息的`/etc/group`。和`/etc/passwd`类似，也是每行一个记录，字段由“:”分割 + + [Group name]:[Group password]:[GID]:[Group members] + +- `[Group name]` 是组名 +- 这个组是否使用了密码 (如果是"x"意味着没有) +- `[GID]`: 和`/etc/passwd`中一样 +- `[Group members]`:用户列表，使用“,”隔开。里面包含组内的所有用户 + +添加过帐户后，任何时候你都可以通过 usermod 命令来修改用户账户信息，基本的语法如下: + + # usermod [options] [username] + +相关阅读 + +- [15 ‘useradd’ 命令示例][1] +- [15 ‘usermod’ 命令示例][2] + +#### 示例1 : 设置帐户的过期时间 #### + +如果你的公司有一些短期使用的帐户或者你要在有限时间内授予访问，你可以使用 `--expiredate` 参数 ，后加YYYY-MM-DD 格式的日期。为了查看是否生效，你可以使用如下命令查看 + + # chage -l [username] + +帐户更新前后的变动如下图所示 + +![Change User Account Information](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Change-User-Account-Information.png) + +*修改用户信息* + +#### 示例 2: 向组内追加用户 #### + +除了创建用户时的主用户组，一个用户还能被添加到别的组。你需要使用 -aG或 -append -group 选项，后跟逗号分隔的组名。 + +#### 示例 3: 修改用户主目录或默认Shell #### + +如果因为一些原因，你需要修改默认的用户主目录(一般为 /home/用户名)，你需要使用 -d 或 -home 参数，后跟绝对路径来修改主目录。 + +如果有用户想要使用其它的shell来取代默认的bash(比如zsh)。使用 usermod ，并使用 -shell 的参数，后加新的shell的路径。 + +#### 示例 4: 展示组内的用户 #### + +当把用户添加到组中后，你可以使用如下命令验证属于哪一个组 + + # groups [username] + # id [username] + +下面图片的演示了示例2到示例4 + +![Adding User to Supplementary Group](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Adding-User-to-Supplementary-Group.png) + +*添加用户到额外的组* + +在上面的示例中: + + # usermod --append --groups gacanepa,users --home /tmp --shell /bin/sh tecmint + +如果想要从组内删除用户，取消 `--append` 选项，并使用 `--groups` 和你要用户属于的组的列表。 + +#### 示例 5: 通过锁定密码来停用帐户 #### + +如果想要关闭帐户，你可以使用 -l(小写的L)或 -lock 选项来锁定用户的密码。这将会阻止用户登录。 + +#### 示例 6: 解锁密码 #### + +当你想要重新启用帐户让它可以继续登录时，使用 -u 或 –unlock 选项来解锁用户的密码，就像示例5 介绍的那样 + + # usermod --unlock tecmint + +下面的图片展示了示例5和示例6： + +![Lock Unlock User Account](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Lock-Unlock-User-Account.png) + +*锁定上锁用户* + +#### 示例 7:删除组和用户 #### + +如果要删除一个组，你需要使用 groupdel ，如果需要删除用户 你需要使用 userdel (添加 -r 可以删除主目录和邮件池的内容)。 + + # groupdel [group_name] # 删除组 + # userdel -r [user_name] # 删除用户，并删除主目录和邮件池 + +如果一些文件属于该组，删除组时它们不会也被删除。但是组拥有者的名字将会被设置为删除掉的组的GID。 + +### 列举，设置，并且修改标准 ugo/rwx 权限 ### + +著名的 [ls 命令][3] 是管理员最好的助手. 当我们使用 -l 参数, 这个工具允许您以长格式（或详细格式)查看一个目录中的内容。 + +而且，该命令还可以用于单个文件中。无论哪种方式，在“ls”输出中的前10个字符表示每个文件的属性。 + +这10个字符序列的第一个字符用于表示文件类型： + +- – (连字符): 一个标准文件 +- d: 一个目录 +- l: 一个符号链接 +- c: 字符设备（将数据作为字节流，例如终端） +- b: 块设备（以块的方式处理数据，例如存储设备） + +文件属性的接下来的九个字符，分为三个组，被称为文件模式，并注明读（r）、写（w）、和执行（x）权限授予文件的所有者、文件的所有组、和其它的用户（通常被称为“世界”）。 + +同文件上的读取权限允许文件被打开和读取一样，如果目录同时有执行权限时，就允许其目录内容被列出。此外，如果一个文件有执行权限，就允许它作为一个程序运行。 + +文件权限是通过chmod命令改变的，它的基本语法如下： + + # chmod [new_mode] file + +new_mode 是一个八进制数或表达式，用于指定新的权限。随意试试各种权限看看是什么效果。或者您已经有了一个更好的方式来设置文件的权限，你也可以用你自己的方式自由地试试。 + +八进制数可以基于二进制等价计算，可以从所需的文件权限的文件的所有者、所有组、和世界组合成。每种权限都等于2的幂（R = 2\^2，W = 2\^1，x = 2\^0），没有时即为0。例如： + +![File Permissions](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/File-Permissions.png) + +*文件权限* + +在八进制形式下设置文件的权限，如上图所示 + + # chmod 744 myfile + +请用马上来对比一下我们以前的计算，在更改文件的权限后，我们的实际输出为： + +![Long List Format](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Long-List-Format.png) + +*长列表格式* + +#### 示例 8: 寻找777权限的文件 #### + +出于安全考虑，你应该确保在正常情况下，尽可能避免777权限（任何人可读、可写、可执行的文件）。虽然我们会在以后的教程中教你如何更有效地找到您的系统的具有特定权限的全部文件，你现在仍可以组合使用ls 和 grep来获取这种信息。 + +在下面的例子，我们会寻找 /etc 目录下的777权限文件。注意，我们要使用[第二章：文件和目录管理][4]中讲到的管道的知识： + + # ls -l /etc | grep rwxrwxrwx + +![Find All Files with 777 Permission](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Find-All-777-Files.png) + +*查找所有777权限的文件* + +#### 示例 9: 为所有用户指定特定权限 #### + +shell脚本，以及一些二进制文件，所有用户都应该有权访问（不只是其相应的所有者和组），应该有相应的执行权限（我们会讨论特殊情况下的问题）： + + # chmod a+x script.sh + +**注意**: 我们可以使用表达式设置文件模式，表示用户权限的字母如“u”，组所有者权限的字母“g”，其余的为“o” ，同时具有所有权限为“a”。权限可以通过`+` 或 `-` 来授予和收回。 + +![Set Execute Permission on File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Set-Execute-Permission-on-File.png) + +*为文件设置执行权限* + +长目录列表还用两列显示了该文件的所有者和所有组。此功能可作为系统中文件的第一级访问控制方法： + +![Check File Owner and Group](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Check-File-Owner-and-Group.png) + +*检查文件的所有者和所有组* + +改变文件的所有者，您应该使用chown命令。请注意，您可以在同时或分别更改文件的所有组： + + # chown user:group file + +你可以更改用户或组，或在同时更改两个属性，但是不要忘记冒号区分，如果你想要更新其它属性，让另外的部分为空： + + # chown :group file # 仅改变所有组 + # chown user: file # 仅改变所有者 + +#### 示例 10:从一个文件复制权限到另一个文件#### + + +如果你想“克隆”一个文件的所有权到另一个，你可以这样做，使用–reference参数，如下： + + # chown --reference=ref_file file + +ref_file的所有信息会复制给 file + +![Clone File Ownership](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Clone-File-Ownership.png) + +*复制文件属主信息* + +### 设置 SETGID 协作目录 ### + +假如你需要授予在一个特定的目录中拥有访问所有的文件的权限给一个特定的用户组，你有可能需要使用给目录设置setgid的方法。当setgid设置后，该真实用户的有效GID会变成属主的GID。 + +因此，任何访问该文件的用户会被授予该文件的属组的权限。此外，当setgid设置在一个目录中，新创建的文件继承组该目录的组，而且新创建的子目录也将继承父目录的setgid权限。 + + # chmod g+s [filename] + +要以八进制形式设置 setgid，需要在基本权限前缀以2。 + + # chmod 2755 [directory] + +### 总结 ### + +扎实的用户和组管理知识，以及标准和特殊的 Linux权限管理，通过实践，可以帮你快速解决 RHEL 7 服务器的文件权限问题。 + +我向你保证，当你按照本文所概述的步骤和使用系统文档(在本系列的[第一章 回顾基础命令及系统文档][5]中讲到)， 你将掌握基本的系统管理的能力。 + +请随时使用下面的评论框让我们知道你是否有任何问题或意见。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-manage-users-and-groups/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[xiqingongzi](https://github.com/xiqingongzi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/add-users-in-linux/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/usermod-command-examples/ +[3]:http://linux.cn/article-5349-1.html +[4]:https://www.linux.cn/article-6155-1.html +[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-reviewing-essential-commands-system-documentation/ diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 04--Editing Text Files with Nano and Vim or Analyzing text with grep and regexps.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 04--Editing Text Files with Nano and Vim or Analyzing text with grep and regexps.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..995aab93e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 04--Editing Text Files with Nano and Vim or Analyzing text with grep and regexps.md @@ -0,0 +1,209 @@ +RHCSA 系列（四）: 编辑文本文件及分析文本 +================================================================================ + +作为系统管理员的日常职责的一部分，每个系统管理员都必须处理文本文件，这包括编辑已有文件（大多可能是配置文件），或创建新的文件。有这样一个说法，假如你想在 Linux 世界中挑起一场圣战，你可以询问系统管理员们，什么是他们最喜爱的编辑器以及为什么。在这篇文章中，我们并不打算那样做，但我们将向你呈现一些技巧，这些技巧对使用两款在 RHEL 7 中最为常用的文本编辑器: nano（由于其简单和易用，特别是对于新手来说）和 vi/m（由于其自身的几个特色使得它不仅仅是一个简单的编辑器）来说都大有裨益。我确信你可以找到更多的理由来使用其中的一个或另一个，或许其他的一些编辑器如 emacs 或 pico。这完全取决于你自己。 + +![学习 Nano 和 vi 编辑器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Learn-Nano-and-vi-Editors.png) + +*RHCSA: 使用 Nano 和 Vim 编辑文本文件 – Part 4* + +### 使用 Nano 编辑器来编辑文件 ### + +要启动 nano，你可以在命令提示符下输入 `nano`，或可选地跟上一个文件名（在这种情况下，若文件存在，它将在编辑模式中被打开）。若文件不存在，或我们省略了文件名， nano 也将在编辑模式下开启，但将为我们开启一个空白屏以便开始输入： + +![Nano 编辑器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Nano-Editor.png) + +*Nano 编辑器* + +正如你在上一张图片中所见的那样， nano 在屏幕的底部呈现出一些可以通过指定的快捷键来触发的功能（\^，即插入记号，代指 Ctrl 键)。它们中的一些是： + +- Ctrl + G: 触发一个帮助菜单，带有一个关于功能和相应的描述的完整列表； + +![Nano 编辑器帮助菜单](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Nano-Help.png) + +*Nano 编辑器帮助菜单* + +- Ctrl + O: 保存更改到一个文件。它可以让你用一个与源文件相同或不同的名称来保存该文件，然后按 Enter 键来确认。 + +![Nano 编辑器保存更改模式](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Nano-Save-Changes.png) + +*Nano 编辑器的保存更改模式* + +- Ctrl + X: 离开当前文件，假如更改没有被保存，则它们将被丢弃； +- Ctrl + R: 通过指定一个完整的文件路径，让你选择一个文件来将该文件的内容插入到当前文件中； + +![Nano: 插入文件内容到主文件中](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Insert-File-Content.png) + +*Nano: 插入文件内容到主文件中* + +上图的操作将把 `/etc/passwd` 的内容插入到当前文件中。 + +- Ctrl + K: 剪切当前行； +- Ctrl + U: 粘贴； +- Ctrl + C: 取消当前的操作并返回先前的屏幕； + +为了轻松地在打开的文件中浏览， nano 提供了下面的功能： + +- Ctrl + F 和 Ctrl + B 分别先前或向后移动光标；而 Ctrl + P 和 Ctrl + N 则分别向上或向下移动一行，功能与箭头键相同； +- Ctrl + space 和 Alt + space 分别向前或向后移动一个单词； + +最后， + +- 假如你想将光标移动到文档中的特定位置，使用 Ctrl + _ (下划线) 并接着输入 X,Y 将准确地带你到 第 X 行，第 Y 列。 + +![在 nano 中定位到具体的行，列](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Column-Numbers.png) + +*在 nano 中定位到具体的行和列* + +上面的例子将带你到当前文档的第 15 行，第 14 列。 + +假如你可以回忆起你早期的 Linux 岁月，特别是当你刚从 Windows 迁移到 Linux 中，你就可能会同意：对于一个新手来说，使用 nano 来开始学习是最好的方式。 + +### 使用 Vim 编辑器来编辑文件 ### + +Vim 是 vi 的加强版本，它是 Linux 中一个著名的文本编辑器，可在所有兼容 POSIX 的 *nix 系统中获取到，例如在 RHEL 7 中。假如你有机会并可以安装 Vim，请继续；假如不能，这篇文章中的大多数（若不是全部）的提示也应该可以正常工作。 + +Vim 的一个出众的特点是可以在多个不同的模式中进行操作： + +- 命令模式（Command Mode）将允许你在文件中跳转和输入命令，这些命令是由一个或多个字母组成的简洁且大小写敏感的组合。假如你想重复执行某个命令特定次数，你可以在这个命令前加上需要重复的次数（这个规则只有极少数例外）。例如， `yy`（或 `Y`，yank 的缩写）可以复制整个当前行，而 `4yy`（或 `4Y`）则复制整个从当前行到接下来的 3 行(总共 4 行)。 +- 我们总是可以通过敲击 `Esc` 键来进入命令模式（无论我们正工作在哪个模式下）。 +- 在末行模式（Ex Mode）中，你可以操作文件（包括保存当前文件和运行外部的程序或命令）。要进入末行模式，你必须从命令模式中（换言之，输入 `Esc` + `:`)输入一个冒号(`:`)，再直接跟上你想使用的末行模式命令的名称。 +- 对于插入模式（Insert Mode），可以输入字母 `i` 进入，然后只需要输入文字即可。大多数的击键结果都将出现在屏幕中的文本中。 + +现在，让我们看看如何在 vim 中执行在上一节列举的针对 nano 的相同的操作。不要忘记敲击 Enter 键来确认 vim 命令。 + +为了从命令行中获取 vim 的完整手册，在命令模式下键入 `:help` 并敲击 Enter 键： + +![vim 编辑器帮助菜单](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/vim-Help-Menu.png) + +*vim 编辑器帮助菜单* + +上面的部分呈现出一个内容列表，这些定义的小节则描述了 Vim 的特定话题。要浏览某一个小节，可以将光标放到它的上面，然后按 `Ctrl + ]` （闭方括号）。注意，底部的小节展示的是当前文件的内容。 + +1、 要保存更改到文件，在命令模式中运行下面命令中的任意一个，就可以达到这个目的： + +``` +:wq! +:x! +ZZ (是的，两个 ZZ,前面无需添加冒号) +``` + +2、 要离开并丢弃更改，使用 `:q!`。这个命令也将允许你离开上面描述过的帮助菜单，并返回到命令模式中的当前文件。 + +3、 剪切 N 行：在命令模式中键入 `Ndd`。 + +4、 复制 M 行：在命令模式中键入 `Myy`。 + +5、 粘贴先前剪贴或复制过的行：在命令模式中按 `P`键。 + +6、 要插入另一个文件的内容到当前文件： + + :r filename + +例如，插入 `/etc/fstab` 的内容，可以这样做： + +[在 vi 编辑器中插入文件的内容](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Insert-Content-vi-Editor.png) + +*在 vi 编辑器中插入文件的内容* + +7、 插入一个命令的输出到当前文档： + + :r! command + +例如，要在光标所在的当前位置后面插入日期和时间： + +![在 vi 编辑器中插入时间和日期](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Insert-Time-and-Date-in-vi-Editor.png) + +*在 vi 编辑器中插入时间和日期* + +在另一篇我写的文章中，([LFCS 系列（二）][1])，我更加详细地解释了在 vim 中可用的键盘快捷键和功能。或许你可以参考那个教程来查看如何使用这个强大的文本编辑器的更深入的例子。 + +### 使用 grep 和正则表达式来分析文本 ### + +到现在为止，你已经学习了如何使用 nano 或 vim 创建和编辑文件。打个比方说，假如你成为了一个文本编辑器忍者 – 那又怎样呢？ 在其他事情上，你也需要知道如何在文本中搜索正则表达式。 + +正则表达式（也称为 "regex" 或 "regexp"） 是一种识别一个特定文本字符串或模式的方式，使得一个程序可以将这个模式和任意的文本字符串相比较。尽管利用 grep 来使用正则表达式值得用一整篇文章来描述，这里就让我们复习一些基本的知识： + +**1、 最简单的正则表达式是一个由数字和字母构成的字符串（例如，单词 "svm"） ，或者两个（在使用两个字符串时，你可以使用 `|`(或) 操作符）：** + + # grep -Ei 'svm|vmx' /proc/cpuinfo + +上面命令的输出结果中若有这两个字符串之一的出现，则标志着你的处理器支持虚拟化: + +![正则表达式示例](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Regular-Expression-Example.png) + +*正则表达式示例* + +**2、 第二种正则表达式是一个范围列表，由方括号包裹。** + +例如， `c[aeiou]t` 匹配字符串 cat、cet、cit、cot 和 cut，而 `[a-z]` 和 `[0-9]` 则相应地匹配小写字母或十进制数字。假如你想重复正则表达式 X 次，在正则表达式的后面立即输入 `{X}`即可。 + +例如，让我们从 `/etc/fstab` 中析出存储设备的 UUID： + + # grep -Ei '[0-9a-f]{8}-([0-9a-f]{4}-){3}[0-9a-f]{12}' -o /etc/fstab + +![在 Linux 中从一个文件中析出字符串](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Extract-String-from-a-File.png) + +*从一个文件中析出字符串* + +方括号中的第一个表达式 `[0-9a-f]` 被用来表示小写的十六进制字符，`{8}`是一个量词，暗示前面匹配的字符串应该重复的次数（在一个 UUID 中的开头序列是一个 8 个字符长的十六进制字符串）。 + +在圆括号中，量词 `{4}`和连字符暗示下一个序列是一个 4 个字符长的十六进制字符串，接着的量词 `({3})`表示前面的表达式要重复 3 次。 + +最后，在 UUID 中的最后一个 12 个字符长的十六进制字符串可以由 `[0-9a-f]{12}` 取得， `-o` 选项表示只打印出在 `/etc/fstab`中匹配行中的匹配的(非空)部分。 + +**3、 POSIX 字符类** + +|字符类|匹配 …| +|-----|-----| +| `[:alnum:]` | 任意字母或数字 [a-zA-Z0-9] | +| `[:alpha:]` |任意字母 [a-zA-Z] | +| `[:blank:]` |空格或制表符 | +| `[:cntrl:]` |任意控制字符 (ASCII 码的 0 至 32) | +| `[:digit:]` |任意数字 [0-9] | +| `[:graph:]` |任意可见字符 | +| `[:lower:]` |任意小写字母 [a-z] | +| `[:print:]` |任意非控制字符 | +| `[:space:]` |任意空格 | +| `[:punct:]` |任意标点字符 | +| `[:upper:]` |任意大写字母 [A-Z] | +| `[:xdigit:]` |任意十六进制数字 [0-9a-fA-F] | +| `[:word:]` |任意字母，数字和下划线 [a-zA-Z0-9_] | + +例如，我们可能会对查找已添加到我们系统中给真实用户的 UID 和 GID（参考“[RHCSA 系列（二）: 如何进行文件和目录管理][2]”来回忆起这些知识）感兴趣。那么，我们将在 `/etc/passwd` 文件中查找 4 个字符长的序列： + + # grep -Ei [[:digit:]]{4} /etc/passwd + +![在文件中查找一个字符串](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Search-For-String-in-File.png) + +*在文件中查找一个字符串* + +上面的示例可能不是真实世界中使用正则表达式的最好案例，但它清晰地启发了我们如何使用 POSIX 字符类来使用 grep 分析文本。 + +### 总结 ### + + +在这篇文章中，我们已经提供了一些技巧来最大地利用针对命令行用户的两个文本编辑器 nano 和 vim，这两个工具都有相关的扩展文档可供阅读，你可以分别查询它们的官方网站(链接在下面给出)以及使用“[RHCSA 系列（一）: 回顾基础命令及系统文档][3]”中给出的建议。 + +#### 参考文件链接 #### + +- [http://www.nano-editor.org/][4] +- [http://www.vim.org/][5] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-how-to-use-nano-vi-editors/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/vi-editor-usage/ +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6155-1.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-6133-1-rel.html +[4]:http://www.nano-editor.org/ +[5]:http://www.vim.org/ +[6]:http://www.tecmint.com/vi-editor-usage/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 05--Process Management in RHEL 7--Boot Shutdown and Everything in Between.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 05--Process Management in RHEL 7--Boot Shutdown and Everything in Between.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..36caaf5294 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 05--Process Management in RHEL 7--Boot Shutdown and Everything in Between.md @@ -0,0 +1,152 @@ +RHCSA 系列（五）: RHEL7 中的进程管理：开机，关机 +================================================================================ +我们将概括和简要地复习从你按开机按钮来打开你的 RHEL 7 服务器到呈现出命令行界面的登录屏幕之间所发生的所有事情，以此来作为这篇文章的开始。 + +![RHEL 7 开机过程](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/RHEL-7-Boot-Process.png) + +*Linux 开机过程* + +**请注意：** + +1. 相同的基本原则也可以应用到其他的 Linux 发行版本中，但可能需要较小的更改，并且 +2. 下面的描述并不是旨在给出开机过程的一个详尽的解释，而只是介绍一些基础的东西 + +### Linux 开机过程 ### + +1. 初始化 POST（加电自检）并执行硬件检查； + +2. 当 POST 完成后，系统的控制权将移交给启动管理器的第一阶段（first stage），它存储在一个硬盘的引导扇区（对于使用 BIOS 和 MBR 的旧式的系统而言）或存储在一个专门的 (U)EFI 分区上。 + +3. 启动管理器的第一阶段完成后，接着进入启动管理器的第二阶段（second stage），通常大多数使用的是 GRUB（GRand Unified Boot Loader 的简称），它驻留在 `/boot` 中，然后开始加载内核和驻留在 RAM 中的初始化文件系统（被称为 initramfs，它包含执行必要操作所需要的程序和二进制文件，以此来最终挂载真实的根文件系统）。 + +4. 接着展示了闪屏（splash）过后，呈现在我们眼前的是类似下图的画面，它允许我们选择一个操作系统和内核来启动： + + ![RHEL 7 开机屏幕](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/RHEL-7-Boot-Screen.png) + + *启动菜单屏幕* + +5. 内核会对接入到系统的硬件进行设置，当根文件系统被挂载后，接着便启动 PID 为 1 的进程，这个进程将开始初始化其他的进程并最终呈现给我们一个登录提示符界面。 + + 注意：假如我们想在启动后查看这些信息，我们可以使用 [dmesg 命令][1]，并使用这个系列里的上一篇文章中介绍过的工具（注：即 grep）来过滤它的输出。 + + ![登录屏幕和进程的 PID](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Login-Screen-Process-PID.png) + + *登录屏幕和进程的 PID* + +在上面的例子中，我们使用了大家熟知的 `ps` 命令来显示在系统启动过程中的一系列当前进程的信息，它们的父进程（或者换句话说，就是那个开启这些进程的进程）为 systemd（大多数现代的 Linux 发行版本已经切换到的系统和服务管理器）： + + # ps -o ppid,pid,uname,comm --ppid=1 + +记住 `-o`（为 -format 的简写）选项允许你以一个自定义的格式来显示 ps 的输出，以此来满足你的需求；这个自定义格式使用 `man ps` 里 STANDARD FORMAT SPECIFIERS 一节中的特定关键词。 + +另一个你想自定义 ps 的输出而不是使用其默认输出的情形是：当你需要找到引起 CPU 或内存消耗过多的那些进程，并按照下列方式来对它们进行排序时： + + # ps aux --sort=+pcpu # 以 %CPU 来排序(增序) + # ps aux --sort=-pcpu # 以 %CPU 来排序(降序) + # ps aux --sort=+pmem # 以 %MEM 来排序(增序) + # ps aux --sort=-pmem # 以 %MEM 来排序(降序) + # ps aux --sort=+pcpu,-pmem # 结合 %CPU (增序) 和 %MEM (降序)来排列 + +![http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ps-command-output.png](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ps-command-output.png) + +*自定义 ps 命令的输出* + +### systemd 的一个介绍 ### + +在 Linux 世界中，很少有能比在主流的 Linux 发行版本中采用 systemd 引起更多的争论的决定。systemd 的倡导者根据以下事实来表明其主要的优势： + +1. 在系统启动期间，systemd 允许并发地启动更多的进程（相比于先前的 SysVinit，SysVinit 似乎总是表现得更慢，因为它一个接一个地启动进程，检查一个进程是否依赖于另一个进程，然后等待守护进程启动才可以启动的更多的服务)，并且 +2. 在一个运行着的系统中，它用作一个动态的资源管理器。这样在启动期间，当一个服务被需要时，才启动它（以此来避免消耗系统资源）而不是在没有一个合理的原因的情况下启动额外的服务。 +3. 向后兼容 sysvinit 的脚本。 + + 另外请阅读: ['init' 和 'systemd' 背后的故事][2] + +systemd 由 systemctl 工具控制，假如你了解 SysVinit，你将会对以下的内容感到熟悉： + +- service 工具，在旧一点的系统中，它被用来管理 SysVinit 脚本，以及 +- chkconfig 工具，为系统服务升级和查询运行级别信息 +- shutdown 你一定使用过几次来重启或关闭一个运行的系统。 + +下面的表格展示了使用传统的工具和 systemctl 之间的相似之处： + + +| 旧式工具 | Systemctl 等价命令 | 描述 | +|-------------|----------------------|-------------| +| service name start | systemctl start name | 启动 name （这里 name 是一个服务） | +| service name stop | systemctl stop name | 停止 name | +| service name condrestart | systemctl try-restart name | 重启 name （如果它已经运行了） | +| service name restart | systemctl restart name | 重启 name | +| service name reload | systemctl reload name | 重载 name 的配置 | +| service name status | systemctl status name | 显示 name 的当前状态 | +| service - status-all | systemctl | 显示当前所有服务的状态 | +| chkconfig name on | systemctl enable name | 通过一个特定的单元文件，让 name 可以在系统启动时运行（这个文件是一个符号链接）。启用或禁用一个启动时的进程，实际上是增加或移除一个到 /etc/systemd/system 目录中的符号链接。 | +| chkconfig name off | systemctl disable name | 通过一个特定的单元文件，让 name 可以在系统启动时禁止运行（这个文件是一个符号链接）。 | +| chkconfig -list name | systemctl is-enabled name | 确定 name （一个特定的服务）当前是否启用。| +| chkconfig - list | systemctl - type=service | 显示所有的服务及其是否启用或禁用。 | +| shutdown -h now | systemctl poweroff | 关机 | +| shutdown -r now | systemctl reboot | 重启系统 | + +systemd 也引进了单元（unit）（它可能是一个服务，一个挂载点，一个设备或者一个网络套接字）和目标（target）（它们定义了 systemd 如何去管理和同时开启几个相关的进程，可以认为它们与在基于 SysVinit 的系统中的运行级别等价，尽管事实上它们并不等价）的概念。 + +### 总结归纳 ### + +其他与进程管理相关，但并不仅限于下面所列的功能的任务有： + +**1. 在考虑到系统资源的使用上，调整一个进程的执行优先级：** + +这是通过 `renice` 工具来完成的，它可以改变一个或多个正在运行着的进程的调度优先级。简单来说，调度优先级是一个允许内核（当前只支持 >= 2.6 的版本）根据某个给定进程被分配的执行优先级（即友善度（niceness），从 -20 到 19）来为其分配系统资源的功能。 + +`renice` 的基本语法如下： + + # renice [-n] priority [-gpu] identifier + +在上面的通用命令中，第一个参数是将要使用的优先级数值，而另一个参数可以是进程 ID（这是默认的设定），进程组 ID，用户 ID 或者用户名。一个常规的用户（即除 root 以外的用户）只可以更改他或她所拥有的进程的调度优先级，并且只能增加友善度的层次（这意味着占用更少的系统资源）。 + +![在 Linux 中调整进程的优先级](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Process-Scheduling-Priority.png) + +*进程调度优先级* + +**2. 按照需要杀死一个进程（或终止其正常执行）：** + +更精确地说，杀死一个进程指的是通过 [kill 或 pkill][3] 命令给该进程发送一个信号，让它优雅地（SIGTERM=15）或立即（SIGKILL=9）结束它的执行。 + +这两个工具的不同之处在于前一个被用来终止一个特定的进程或一个进程组，而后一个则允许你通过进程的名称和其他属性，执行相同的动作。 + +另外， pkill 与 pgrep 相捆绑，pgrep 提供将受符合的进程的 PID 给 pkill 来使用。例如，在运行下面的命令之前： + + # pkill -u gacanepa + +查看一眼由 gacanepa 所拥有的 PID 或许会带来点帮助： + + # pgrep -l -u gacanepa + +![找到用户拥有的 PID](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Find-PIDs-of-User.png) + +*找到用户拥有的 PID* + +默认情况下，kill 和 pkiill 都发送 SIGTERM 信号给进程，如我们上面提到的那样，这个信号可以被忽略（即该进程可能会终止其自身的执行，也可能不终止），所以当你因一个合理的理由要真正地停止一个运行着的进程，则你将需要在命令行中带上特定的 SIGKILL 信号： + + # kill -9 identifier # 杀死一个进程或一个进程组 + # kill -s SIGNAL identifier # 同上 + # pkill -s SIGNAL identifier # 通过名称或其他属性来杀死一个进程 + +### 结论 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们解释了在 RHEL 7 系统中，有关开机启动过程的基本知识，并分析了一些可用的工具来帮助你通过使用一般的程序和 systemd 特有的命令来管理进程。 + +请注意，这个列表并不旨在涵盖有关这个话题的所有花哨的工具，请随意使用下面的评论栏来添加你自已钟爱的工具和命令。同时欢迎你的提问和其他的评论。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-boot-process-and-process-management/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-3587-1.html +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/systemd-replaces-init-in-linux/ +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-2116-1.html diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 06--Using 'Parted' and 'SSM' to Configure and Encrypt System Storage.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 06--Using 'Parted' and 'SSM' to Configure and Encrypt System Storage.md similarity index 71% rename from translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 06--Using 'Parted' and 'SSM' to Configure and Encrypt System Storage.md rename to published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 06--Using 'Parted' and 'SSM' to Configure and Encrypt System Storage.md index 41890b2280..d33d4eb3d0 100644 --- a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 06--Using 'Parted' and 'SSM' to Configure and Encrypt System Storage.md +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 06--Using 'Parted' and 'SSM' to Configure and Encrypt System Storage.md @@ -1,28 +1,28 @@ -RHCSA 系列：使用 'Parted' 和 'SSM' 来配置和加密系统存储 – Part 6 +RHCSA 系列（六）: 使用 Parted 和 SSM 来配置和加密系统存储 ================================================================================ -在本篇文章中，我们将讨论在 RHEL 7 中如何使用传统的工具来设置和配置本地系统存储，并介绍系统存储管理器(也称为 SSM)，它将极大地简化上面的任务。 +在本篇文章中，我们将讨论在 RHEL 7 中如何使用传统的工具来设置和配置本地系统存储，并介绍系统存储管理器（也称为 SSM），它将极大地简化上面的任务。 ![配置和加密系统存储](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Configure-and-Encrypt-System-Storage.png) -RHCSA: 配置和加密系统存储 – Part 6 +*RHCSA: 配置和加密系统存储 – Part 6* -请注意，我们将在这篇文章中展开这个话题，但由于该话题的宽泛性，我们将在下一期(Part 7)中继续介绍有关它的描述和使用。 +请注意，我们将在这篇文章中展开这个话题，但由于该话题的宽泛性，我们将在下一期中继续介绍有关它的描述和使用。 ### 在 RHEL 7 中创建和修改分区 ### 在 RHEL 7 中， parted 是默认的用来处理分区的程序，且它允许你： - 展示当前的分区表 -- 操纵(增加或减少分区的大小)现有的分区 +- 操纵（扩大或缩小分区的大小）现有的分区 - 利用空余的磁盘空间或额外的物理存储设备来创建分区 -强烈建议你在试图增加一个新的分区或对一个现有分区进行更改前，你应当确保设备上没有任何一个分区正在使用(`umount /dev/partition`)，且假如你正使用设备的一部分来作为 swap 分区，在进行上面的操作期间，你需要将它禁用(`swapoff -v /dev/partition`) 。 +强烈建议你在试图增加一个新的分区或对一个现有分区进行更改前，你应当确保该设备上没有任何一个分区正在使用（`umount /dev/分区`），且假如你正使用设备的一部分来作为 swap 分区，在进行上面的操作期间，你需要将它禁用（`swapoff -v /dev/分区`） 。 -实施上面的操作的最简单的方法是使用一个安装介质例如一个 RHEL 7 安装 DVD 或 USB 以急救模式启动 RHEL(Troubleshooting → Rescue a Red Hat Enterprise Linux system)，然后当让你选择一个选项来挂载现有的 Linux 安装时，选择'跳过'这个选项，接着你将看到一个命令行提示符，在其中你可以像下图显示的那样开始键入与在一个未被使用的物理设备上创建一个正常的分区时所用的相同的命令。 +实施上面的操作的最简单的方法是使用一个安装介质例如一个 RHEL 7 的 DVD 或 USB 安装盘以急救模式启动 RHEL（`Troubleshooting` → `Rescue a Red Hat Enterprise Linux system`），然后当让你选择一个选项来挂载现有的 Linux 安装时，选择“跳过”这个选项，接着你将看到一个命令行提示符，在其中你可以像下图显示的那样开始键入与在一个未被使用的物理设备上创建一个正常的分区时所用的相同的命令。 ![RHEL 7 急救模式](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/RHEL-7-Rescue-Mode.png) -RHEL 7 急救模式 +*RHEL 7 急救模式* 要启动 parted，只需键入： @@ -32,17 +32,17 @@ RHEL 7 急救模式 ![创建新的分区](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Create-New-Partition.png) -创建新的分区 +*创建新的分区* -正如你所看到的那样，在这个例子中，我们正在使用一个 5 GB 的虚拟光驱。现在我们将要创建一个 4 GB 的主分区，然后将它格式化为 xfs 文件系统，它是 RHEL 7 中默认的文件系统。 +正如你所看到的那样，在这个例子中，我们正在使用一个 5 GB 的虚拟驱动器。现在我们将要创建一个 4 GB 的主分区，然后将它格式化为 xfs 文件系统，它是 RHEL 7 中默认的文件系统。 -你可以从一系列的文件系统中进行选择。你将需要使用 mkpart 来手动地创建分区，接着和平常一样，用 mkfs.fstype 来对分区进行格式化，因为 mkpart 并不支持许多现代的文件系统以达到即开即用。 +你可以从一系列的文件系统中进行选择。你将需要使用 `mkpart` 来手动地创建分区，接着和平常一样，用 `mkfs.类型` 来对分区进行格式化，因为 `mkpart` 并不支持许多现代的文件系统的到即开即用。 在下面的例子中，我们将为设备设定一个标记，然后在 `/dev/sdb` 上创建一个主分区 `(p)`，它从设备的 0% 开始，并在 4000MB(4 GB) 处结束。 ![在 Linux 中设定分区名称](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Label-Partition.png) -标记分区的名称 +*标记分区的名称* 接下来，我们将把分区格式化为 xfs 文件系统，然后再次打印出分区表，以此来确保更改已被应用。 @@ -51,11 +51,11 @@ RHEL 7 急救模式 ![在 Linux 中格式化分区](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Format-Partition-in-Linux.png) -格式化分区为 XFS 文件系统 +*格式化分区为 XFS 文件系统* -对于旧一点的文件系统，在 parted 中你应该使用 `resize` 命令来改变分区的大小。不幸的是，这只适用于 ext2, fat16, fat32, hfs, linux-swap, 和 reiserfs (若 libreiserfs 已被安装)。 +对于旧一点的文件系统，在 parted 中你可以使用 `resize` 命令来改变分区的大小。不幸的是，这只适用于 ext2, fat16, fat32, hfs, linux-swap, 和 reiserfs （若 libreiserfs 已被安装）。 -因此，改变分区大小的唯一方式是删除它然后再创建它(所以确保你对你的数据做了完整的备份！)。毫无疑问，在 RHEL 7 中默认的分区方案是基于 LVM 的。 +因此，改变分区大小的唯一方式是删除它然后再创建它（所以，确保你对你的数据做了完整的备份！）。毫无疑问，在 RHEL 7 中默认的分区方案是基于 LVM 的。 使用 parted 来移除一个分区，可以用： @@ -64,23 +64,23 @@ RHEL 7 急救模式 ![在 Linux 中移除分区](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Remove-Partition-in-Linux.png) -移除或删除分区 +*移除或删除分区* ### 逻辑卷管理(LVM) ### -一旦一个磁盘被分好了分区，再去更改分区的大小就是一件困难或冒险的事了。基于这个原因，假如我们计划在我们的系统上对分区的大小进行更改，我们应当考虑使用 LVM 的可能性，而不是使用传统的分区系统。这样多个物理设备可以组成一个逻辑组，以此来寄宿可自定义数目的逻辑卷，而逻辑卷的增大或减少不会带来任何麻烦。 +一旦一个磁盘被分好了分区，再去更改分区的大小就是一件困难或冒险的事了。基于这个原因，假如我们计划在我们的系统上对分区的大小进行更改，我们应当考虑使用 LVM 的可能性，而不是使用传统的分区系统。这样多个物理设备可以组成一个逻辑组，以此来存放任意数目的逻辑卷，而逻辑卷的增大或减少不会带来任何麻烦。 简单来说，你会发现下面的示意图对记住 LVM 的基础架构或许有用。 ![LVM 的基本架构](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/LVM-Diagram.png) -LVM 的基本架构 +*LVM 的基本架构* #### 创建物理卷，卷组和逻辑卷 #### 遵循下面的步骤是为了使用传统的卷管理工具来设置 LVM。由于你可以通过阅读这个网站上的 LVM 系列来扩展这个话题，我将只是概要的介绍设置 LVM 的基本步骤，然后与使用 SSM 来实现相同功能做个比较。 -**注**: 我们将使用整个磁盘 `/dev/sdb` 和 `/dev/sdc` 来作为 PVs (物理卷)，但是否执行相同的操作完全取决于你。 +**注**: 我们将使用整个磁盘 `/dev/sdb` 和 `/dev/sdc` 来作为物理卷（PV），但是否执行相同的操作完全取决于你。 **1. 使用 /dev/sdb 和 /dev/sdc 中 100% 的可用磁盘空间来创建分区 `/dev/sdb1` 和 `/dev/sdc1`：** @@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ LVM 的基本架构 ![创建新分区](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Create-New-Partitions.png) -创建新分区 +*创建新分区* **2. 分别在 /dev/sdb1 和 /dev/sdc1 上共创建 2 个物理卷。** @@ -98,21 +98,21 @@ LVM 的基本架构 ![创建两个物理卷](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Create-Physical-Volumes.png) -创建两个物理卷 +*创建两个物理卷* -记住，你可以使用 pvdisplay /dev/sd{b,c}1 来显示有关新建的 PV 的信息。 +记住，你可以使用 pvdisplay /dev/sd{b,c}1 来显示有关新建的物理卷的信息。 -**3. 在上一步中创建的 PV 之上创建一个 VG：** +**3. 在上一步中创建的物理卷之上创建一个卷组（VG）：** # vgcreate tecmint_vg /dev/sd{b,c}1 ![在 Linux 中创建卷组](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Create-Volume-Group.png) -创建卷组 +*创建卷组* -记住，你可使用 vgdisplay tecmint_vg 来显示有关新建的 VG 的信息。 +记住，你可使用 vgdisplay tecmint_vg 来显示有关新建的卷组的信息。 -**4. 像下面那样，在 VG tecmint_vg 之上创建 3 个逻辑卷：** +**4. 像下面那样，在卷组 tecmint_vg 之上创建 3 个逻辑卷（LV）：** # lvcreate -L 3G -n vol01_docs tecmint_vg [vol01_docs → 3 GB] # lvcreate -L 1G -n vol02_logs tecmint_vg [vol02_logs → 1 GB] @@ -120,11 +120,11 @@ LVM 的基本架构 ![在 LVM 中创建逻辑卷](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Create-Logical-Volumes.png) -创建逻辑卷 +*创建逻辑卷* -记住，你可以使用 lvdisplay tecmint_vg 来显示有关在 VG tecmint_vg 之上新建的 LV 的信息。 +记住，你可以使用 lvdisplay tecmint_vg 来显示有关在 tecmint_vg 之上新建的逻辑卷的信息。 -**5. 格式化每个逻辑卷为 xfs 文件系统格式(假如你计划在以后将要缩小卷的大小，请别使用 xfs 文件系统格式！)：** +**5. 格式化每个逻辑卷为 xfs 文件系统格式（假如你计划在以后将要缩小卷的大小，请别使用 xfs 文件系统格式！）：** # mkfs.xfs /dev/tecmint_vg/vol01_docs # mkfs.xfs /dev/tecmint_vg/vol02_logs @@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ LVM 的基本架构 #### 移除逻辑卷，卷组和物理卷 #### -**7.现在我们将进行与刚才相反的操作并移除 LV，VG 和 PV：** +**7.现在我们将进行与刚才相反的操作并移除逻辑卷、卷组和物理卷：** # lvremove /dev/tecmint_vg/vol01_docs # lvremove /dev/tecmint_vg/vol02_logs @@ -161,20 +161,20 @@ LVM 的基本架构 - 初始化块设备来作为物理卷 - 创建一个卷组 - 创建逻辑卷 -- 格式化 LV 和 +- 格式化逻辑卷，以及 - 只使用一个命令来挂载它们 -**9. 现在，我们可以使用下面的命令来展示有关 PV，VG 或 LV 的信息：** +**9. 现在，我们可以使用下面的命令来展示有关物理卷、卷组或逻辑卷的信息：** # ssm list dev # ssm list pool # ssm list vol -![检查有关 PV, VG,或 LV 的信息](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Display-LVM-Information.png) +![检查有关物理卷、卷组或逻辑卷的信息](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Display-LVM-Information.png) -检查有关 PV, VG,或 LV 的信息 +*检查有关物理卷、卷组或逻辑卷的信息* -**10. 正如我们知道的那样， LVM 的一个显著的特点是可以在不停机的情况下更改(增大或缩小) 逻辑卷的大小：** +**10. 正如我们知道的那样， LVM 的一个显著的特点是可以在不停机的情况下更改（增大或缩小）逻辑卷的大小：** 假定在 vol02_logs 上我们用尽了空间，而 vol03_homes 还留有足够的空间。我们将把 vol03_homes 的大小调整为 4 GB，并使用剩余的空间来扩展 vol02_logs： @@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ LVM 的基本架构 ![查看卷的大小](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Check-LVM-Free-Space.png) -查看卷的大小 +*查看卷的大小* 然后执行： @@ -196,11 +196,11 @@ LVM 的基本架构 # ssm remove tecmint_vg -这个命令将返回一个提示，询问你是否确认删除 VG 和它所包含的 LV： +这个命令将返回一个提示，询问你是否确认删除卷组和它所包含的逻辑卷： ![移除逻辑卷和卷组](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Remove-LV-VG.png) -移除逻辑卷和卷组 +*移除逻辑卷和卷组* ### 管理加密的卷 ### @@ -216,7 +216,7 @@ SSM 也给系统管理员提供了为新的或现存的卷加密的能力。首 我们的下一个任务是往 /etc/fstab 中添加条目来让这些逻辑卷在启动时可用，而不是使用设备识别编号(/dev/something)。 -我们将使用每个 LV 的 UUID (使得当我们添加其他的逻辑卷或设备后，我们的设备仍然可以被唯一的标记)，而我们可以使用 blkid 应用来找到它们的 UUID： +我们将使用每个逻辑卷的 UUID （使得当我们添加其他的逻辑卷或设备后，我们的设备仍然可以被唯一的标记），而我们可以使用 blkid 应用来找到它们的 UUID： # blkid -o value UUID /dev/tecmint_vg/vol01_docs # blkid -o value UUID /dev/tecmint_vg/vol02_logs @@ -226,7 +226,7 @@ SSM 也给系统管理员提供了为新的或现存的卷加密的能力。首 ![找到逻辑卷的 UUID](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Logical-Volume-UUID.png) -找到逻辑卷的 UUID +*找到逻辑卷的 UUID* 接着，使用下面的内容来创建 /etc/crypttab 文件(请更改 UUID 来适用于你的设置)： @@ -243,11 +243,11 @@ SSM 也给系统管理员提供了为新的或现存的卷加密的能力。首 # Logical volume vol03_homes /dev/mapper/homes /mnt/homes ext4 defaults 0 2 -现在重启(systemctl reboot)，则你将被要求为每个 LV 输入密码。随后，你可以通过检查相应的挂载点来确保挂载操作是否成功： +现在重启（`systemctl reboot`），则你将被要求为每个逻辑卷输入密码。随后，你可以通过检查相应的挂载点来确保挂载操作是否成功： ![确保逻辑卷挂载点](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Verify-LV-Mount-Points.png) -确保逻辑卷挂载点 +*确保逻辑卷挂载点* ### 总结 ### @@ -261,7 +261,7 @@ via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-create-format-resize-delete-and-encrypt-p 作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] 译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 07--Using ACLs (Access Control Lists) and Mounting Samba or NFS Shares.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 07--Using ACLs (Access Control Lists) and Mounting Samba or NFS Shares.md similarity index 67% rename from translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 07--Using ACLs (Access Control Lists) and Mounting Samba or NFS Shares.md rename to published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 07--Using ACLs (Access Control Lists) and Mounting Samba or NFS Shares.md index a68d36de2b..94f42a47ba 100644 --- a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 07--Using ACLs (Access Control Lists) and Mounting Samba or NFS Shares.md +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 07--Using ACLs (Access Control Lists) and Mounting Samba or NFS Shares.md @@ -1,42 +1,40 @@ -RHCSA 系列：使用 ACL(访问控制列表) 和挂载 Samba/NFS 共享 – Part 7 +RHCSA 系列（六）: 使用 ACL（访问控制列表) 和挂载 Samba/NFS 共享 ================================================================================ -在上一篇文章([RHCSA 系列 Part 6][1])中，我们解释了如何使用 parted 和 ssm 来设置和配置本地系统存储。 +在上一篇文章([RHCSA 系列（六）][1])中，我们解释了如何使用 parted 和 ssm 来设置和配置本地系统存储。 ![配置 ACL 及挂载 NFS/Samba 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Configure-ACLs-and-Mounting-NFS-Samba-Shares.png) -RHCSA Series: 配置 ACL 及挂载 NFS/Samba 共享 – Part 7 +*RHCSA 系列: 配置 ACL 及挂载 NFS/Samba 共享 – Part 7* -我们也讨论了如何创建和在系统启动时使用一个密码来挂载加密的卷。另外，我们告诫过你要避免在挂载的文件系统上执行苛刻的存储管理操作。记住了这点后，现在，我们将回顾在 RHEL 7 中最常使用的文件系统格式，然后将涵盖有关手动或自动挂载、使用和卸载网络文件系统(CIFS 和 NFS)的话题以及在你的操作系统上实现访问控制列表的使用。 +我们也讨论了如何创建和在系统启动时使用一个密码来挂载加密的卷。另外，我们告诫过你要避免在挂载的文件系统上执行危险的存储管理操作。记住了这点后，现在，我们将回顾在 RHEL 7 中最常使用的文件系统格式，然后将涵盖有关手动或自动挂载、使用和卸载网络文件系统（CIFS 和 NFS）的话题以及在你的操作系统上实现访问控制列表（Access Control List）的使用。 #### 前提条件 #### -在进一步深入之前，请确保你可使用 Samba 服务和 NFS 服务(注意在 RHEL 7 中 NFSv2 已不再被支持)。 +在进一步深入之前，请确保你可使用 Samba 服务和 NFS 服务（注意在 RHEL 7 中 NFSv2 已不再被支持）。 -在本次指导中，我们将使用一个IP 地址为 192.168.0.10 且同时运行着 Samba 服务和 NFS 服务的机子来作为服务器，使用一个 IP 地址为 192.168.0.18 的 RHEL 7 机子来作为客户端。在这篇文章的后面部分，我们将告诉你在客户端上你需要安装哪些软件包。 +在本次指导中，我们将使用一个IP 地址为 192.168.0.10 且同时运行着 Samba 服务和 NFS 服务的机器来作为服务器，使用一个 IP 地址为 192.168.0.18 的 RHEL 7 机器来作为客户端。在这篇文章的后面部分，我们将告诉你在客户端上你需要安装哪些软件包。 ### RHEL 7 中的文件系统格式 ### -从 RHEL 7 开始，由于 XFS 的高性能和可扩展性，它已经被引入所有的架构中来作为默认的文件系统。 -根据 Red Hat 及其合作伙伴在主流硬件上执行的最新测试，当前 XFS 已支持最大为 500 TB 大小的文件系统。 +从 RHEL 7 开始，由于 XFS 的高性能和可扩展性，它已经被作为所有的架构中的默认文件系统。根据 Red Hat 及其合作伙伴在主流硬件上执行的最新测试，当前 XFS 已支持最大为 500 TB 大小的文件系统。 -另外， XFS 启用了 user_xattr(扩展用户属性) 和 acl( -POSIX 访问控制列表)来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext4(对于 RHEL 7 来说， ext2 已过时)，这意味着当挂载一个 XFS 文件系统时，你不必显式地在命令行或 /etc/fstab 中指定这些选项(假如你想在后一种情况下禁用这些选项，你必须显式地使用 no_acl 和 no_user_xattr)。 +另外，XFS 启用了 `user_xattr`（扩展用户属性） 和 `acl`（POSIX 访问控制列表）来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext4（对于 RHEL 7 来说，ext2 已过时），这意味着当挂载一个 XFS 文件系统时，你不必显式地在命令行或 /etc/fstab 中指定这些选项（假如你想在后一种情况下禁用这些选项，你必须显式地使用 `no_acl` 和 `no_user_xattr`）。 -请记住扩展用户属性可以被指定到文件和目录中来存储任意的额外信息如 mime 类型，字符集或文件的编码，而用户属性中的访问权限由一般的文件权限位来定义。 +请记住扩展用户属性可以给文件和目录指定，用来存储任意的额外信息如 mime 类型，字符集或文件的编码，而用户属性中的访问权限由一般的文件权限位来定义。 #### 访问控制列表 #### -作为一名系统管理员，无论你是新手还是专家，你一定非常熟悉与文件和目录有关的常规访问权限，这些权限为所有者，所有组和"世界"(所有的其他人)指定了特定的权限(可读，可写及可执行)。但如若你需要稍微更新你的记忆，请随意参考 [RHCSA 系列的 Part 3][3]. +作为一名系统管理员，无论你是新手还是专家，你一定非常熟悉与文件和目录有关的常规访问权限，这些权限为所有者，所有组和“世界”（所有的其他人）指定了特定的权限（可读，可写及可执行）。但如若你需要稍微更新下你的记忆，请参考 [RHCSA 系列（三）][3]. 但是，由于标准的 `ugo/rwx` 集合并不允许为不同的用户配置不同的权限，所以 ACL 便被引入了进来，为的是为文件和目录定义更加详细的访问权限，而不仅仅是这些特别指定的特定权限。 事实上， ACL 定义的权限是由文件权限位所特别指定的权限的一个超集。下面就让我们看看这个转换是如何在真实世界中被应用的吧。 -1. 存在两种类型的 ACL：访问 ACL，可被应用到一个特定的文件或目录上，以及默认 ACL，只可被应用到一个目录上。假如目录中的文件没有 ACL，则它们将继承它们的父目录的默认 ACL 。 +1. 存在两种类型的 ACL：访问 ACL，可被应用到一个特定的文件或目录上；以及默认 ACL，只可被应用到一个目录上。假如目录中的文件没有 ACL，则它们将继承它们的父目录的默认 ACL 。 2. 从一开始， ACL 就可以为每个用户，每个组或不在文件所属组中的用户配置相应的权限。 -3. ACL 可使用 `setfacl` 来设置(和移除)，可相应地使用 -m 或 -x 选项。 +3. ACL 可使用 `setfacl` 来设置（和移除），可相应地使用 -m 或 -x 选项。 例如，让我们创建一个名为 tecmint 的组，并将用户 johndoe 和 davenull 加入该组： @@ -53,36 +51,32 @@ POSIX 访问控制列表)来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext ![检验用户](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Verify-Users.png) -检验用户 +*检验用户* -现在，我们在 /mnt 下创建一个名为 playground 的目录，并在该目录下创建一个名为 testfile.txt 的文件。我们将设定该文件的属组为 tecmint，并更改它的默认 ugo/rwx 权限为 770(即赋予该文件的属主和属组可读，可写和可执行权限)： +现在，我们在 /mnt 下创建一个名为 playground 的目录，并在该目录下创建一个名为 testfile.txt 的文件。我们将设定该文件的属组为 tecmint，并更改它的默认 `ugo/rwx` 权限为 770（即赋予该文件的属主和属组可读、可写和可执行权限）： # mkdir /mnt/playground # touch /mnt/playground/testfile.txt + # chown :tecmint /mnt/playground/testfile.txt # chmod 770 /mnt/playground/testfile.txt 接着，依次切换为 johndoe 和 davenull 用户，并在文件中写入一些信息： - echo "My name is John Doe" > /mnt/playground/testfile.txt - echo "My name is Dave Null" >> /mnt/playground/testfile.txt - -到目前为止，一切正常。现在我们让用户 gacanepa 来向该文件执行写操作 – 则写操作将会失败，这是可以预料的。 - -但实际上我们需要用户 gacanepa(TA 不是组 tecmint 的成员)在文件 /mnt/playground/testfile.txt 上有写权限，那又该怎么办呢？首先映入你脑海里的可能是将该用户添加到组 tecmint 中。但那将使得他在所有该组具有写权限位的文件上均拥有写权限，但我们并不想这样，我们只想他能够在文件 /mnt/playground/testfile.txt 上有写权限。 - - # touch /mnt/playground/testfile.txt - # chown :tecmint /mnt/playground/testfile.txt - # chmod 777 /mnt/playground/testfile.txt # su johndoe $ echo "My name is John Doe" > /mnt/playground/testfile.txt $ su davenull $ echo "My name is Dave Null" >> /mnt/playground/testfile.txt + +到目前为止，一切正常。现在我们让用户 gacanepa 来向该文件执行写操作 – 则写操作将会失败，这是可以预料的。 + $ su gacanepa $ echo "My name is Gabriel Canepa" >> /mnt/playground/testfile.txt ![管理用户的权限](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/User-Permissions.png) -管理用户的权限 +*管理用户的权限* + +但实际上我们需要用户 gacanepa（他不是组 tecmint 的成员）在文件 /mnt/playground/testfile.txt 上有写权限，那又该怎么办呢？首先映入你脑海里的可能是将该用户添加到组 tecmint 中。但那将使得他在所有该组具有写权限位的文件上均拥有写权限，但我们并不想这样，我们只想他能够在文件 /mnt/playground/testfile.txt 上有写权限。 现在，让我们给用户 gacanepa 在 /mnt/playground/testfile.txt 文件上有读和写权限。 @@ -90,7 +84,7 @@ POSIX 访问控制列表)来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext # setfacl -R -m u:gacanepa:rwx /mnt/playground -则你将成功地添加一条 ACL，运行 gacanepa 对那个测试文件可写。然后切换为 gacanepa 用户，并再次尝试向该文件写入一些信息： +则你将成功地添加一条 ACL，允许 gacanepa 对那个测试文件可写。然后切换为 gacanepa 用户，并再次尝试向该文件写入一些信息： $ echo "My name is Gabriel Canepa" >> /mnt/playground/testfile.txt @@ -100,9 +94,9 @@ POSIX 访问控制列表)来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext ![检查文件的 ACL](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Check-ACL-of-File.png) -检查文件的 ACL +*检查文件的 ACL* -要为目录设定默认 ACL(它的内容将被该目录下的文件继承，除非另外被覆写)，在规则前添加 `d:`并特别指定一个目录名，而不是文件名： +要为目录设定默认 ACL（它的内容将被该目录下的文件继承，除非另外被覆写），在规则前添加 `d:`并特别指定一个目录名，而不是文件名： # setfacl -m d:o:r /mnt/playground @@ -111,7 +105,7 @@ POSIX 访问控制列表)来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext ![在 Linux 中设定默认 ACL](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Set-Default-ACL-in-Linux.png) -在 Linux 中设定默认 ACL +*在 Linux 中设定默认 ACL* [在官方的 RHEL 7 存储管理指导手册的第 20 章][3] 中提供了更多有关 ACL 的例子，我极力推荐你看一看它并将它放在身边作为参考。 @@ -129,7 +123,7 @@ POSIX 访问控制列表)来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext ![检查可用的 NFS 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Mount-NFS-Shares.png) -检查可用的 NFS 共享 +*检查可用的 NFS 共享* 要按照需求在本地客户端上使用命令行来挂载 NFS 网络共享，可使用下面的语法： @@ -139,7 +133,7 @@ POSIX 访问控制列表)来作为默认的挂载选项，而不像 ext3 或 ext # mount -t nfs 192.168.0.10:/NFS-SHARE /mnt/nfs -若你得到如下的错误信息：“Job for rpc-statd.service failed. See “systemctl status rpc-statd.service”及“journalctl -xn” for details.”，请确保 `rpcbind` 服务被启用且已在你的系统中启动了。 +若你得到如下的错误信息：`Job for rpc-statd.service failed. See "systemctl status rpc-statd.service" and "journalctl -xn" for details.`，请确保 `rpcbind` 服务被启用且已在你的系统中启动了。 # systemctl enable rpcbind.socket # systemctl restart rpcbind.service @@ -162,7 +156,7 @@ Samba 代表一个特别的工具，使得在由 *nix 和 Windows 机器组成 ![检查 Samba 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Check-Samba-Shares.png) -检查 Samba 共享 +*检查 Samba 共享* 要在本地客户端上挂载 Samba 网络共享，你需要已安装好 cifs-utils 软件包： @@ -176,14 +170,14 @@ Samba 代表一个特别的工具，使得在由 *nix 和 Windows 机器组成 # mount -t cifs -o credentials=~/.smbcredentials //192.168.0.10/gacanepa /mnt/samba -其中 `smbcredentials` +其中 `.smbcredentials` 的内容是： username=gacanepa password=XXXXXX -是一个位于 root 用户的家目录(/root/) 中的隐藏文件，其权限被设置为 600，所以除了该文件的属主外，其他人对该文件既不可读也不可写。 +它是一个位于 root 用户的家目录(/root/) 中的隐藏文件，其权限被设置为 600，所以除了该文件的属主外，其他人对该文件既不可读也不可写。 -请注意 samba_share 是 Samba 分享的名称，由上面展示的 `smbclient -L remote_host` 所返回。 +请注意 samba_share 是 Samba 共享的名称，由上面展示的 `smbclient -L remote_host` 所返回。 现在，若你需要在系统启动时自动地使得 Samba 分享可用，可以向 /etc/fstab 文件添加一个像下面这样的有效条目： @@ -197,7 +191,7 @@ Samba 代表一个特别的工具，使得在由 *nix 和 Windows 机器组成 在这篇文章中，我们已经解释了如何在 Linux 中设置 ACL，并讨论了如何在一个 RHEL 7 客户端上挂载 CIFS 和 NFS 网络共享。 -我建议你去练习这些概念，甚至混合使用它们(试着在一个挂载的网络共享上设置 ACL)，直至你感觉舒适。假如你有问题或评论，请随时随意地使用下面的评论框来联系我们。另外，请随意通过你的社交网络分享这篇文章。 +我建议你去练习这些概念，甚至混合使用它们（试着在一个挂载的网络共享上设置 ACL），直至你感觉掌握了。假如你有问题或评论，请随时随意地使用下面的评论框来联系我们。另外，请随意通过你的社交网络分享这篇文章。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -205,11 +199,11 @@ via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-configure-acls-and-mount-nfs-samba-shares 作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] 译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) 本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 [a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-create-format-resize-delete-and-encrypt-partitions-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-manage-users-and-groups/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-6257-1.html +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6187-1.html [3]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/Storage_Administration_Guide/ch-acls.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 08--Securing SSH, Setting Hostname and Enabling Network Services.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 08--Securing SSH, Setting Hostname and Enabling Network Services.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3494bf7355 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 08--Securing SSH, Setting Hostname and Enabling Network Services.md @@ -0,0 +1,217 @@ +RHCSA 系列（八）: 加固 SSH，设定主机名及启用网络服务 +================================================================================ + +作为一名系统管理员，你将经常使用一个终端模拟器来登录到一个远程的系统中，执行一系列的管理任务。你将很少有机会坐在一个真实的（物理）终端前，所以你需要设定好一种方法来使得你可以登录到你需要去管理的那台远程主机上。 + +事实上，当你必须坐在一台物理终端前的时候，就可能是你登录到该主机的最后一种方法了。基于安全原因，使用 Telnet 来达到以上目的并不是一个好主意，因为穿行在线缆上的流量并没有被加密，它们以明文方式在传送。 + +另外，在这篇文章中，我们也将复习如何配置网络服务来使得它在开机时被自动开启，并学习如何设置网络和静态或动态地解析主机名。 + +![RHCSA: 安全 SSH 和开启网络服务](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Secure-SSH-Server-and-Enable-Network-Services.png) + +*RHCSA: 安全 SSH 和开启网络服务 – Part 8* + +### 安装并确保 SSH 通信安全 ### + +对于你来说，要能够使用 SSH 远程登录到一个 RHEL 7 机子，你必须安装 `openssh`，`openssh-clients` 和 `openssh-servers` 软件包。下面的命令不仅将安装远程登录程序，也会安装安全的文件传输工具以及远程文件复制程序： + + # yum update && yum install openssh openssh-clients openssh-servers + +注意，也安装上服务器所需的相应软件包是一个不错的主意，因为或许在某个时刻，你想使用同一个机子来作为客户端和服务器。 + +在安装完成后，如若你想安全地访问你的 SSH 服务器，你还需要考虑一些基本的事情。下面的设定应该出现在文件 `/etc/ssh/sshd_config` 中。 + +1、 更改 sshd 守护进程的监听端口，从 22（默认的端口值）改为一个更高的端口值（2000 或更大），但首先要确保所选的端口没有被占用。 + +例如，让我们假设你选择了端口 2500 。使用 [netstat][1] 来检查所选的端口是否被占用： + + # netstat -npltu | grep 2500 + +假如 netstat 没有返回任何信息，则你可以安全地为 sshd 使用端口 2500，并且你应该在上面的配置文件中更改端口的设定，具体如下： + + Port 2500 + +2、 只允许协议 2（LCTT 译注：SSHv1 已经被证明不安全，默认情况下 SSHv1 和 SSHv2 都支持，所以应该显示去掉如下配置行的注释，并只支持 SSHv2。）： + + Protocol 2 + +3、 配置验证超时的时间为 2 分钟，不允许以 root 身份登录，并将允许通过 ssh 登录的人数限制到最小： + + LoginGraceTime 2m + PermitRootLogin no + AllowUsers gacanepa + +4、 假如可能，使用基于公钥的验证方式而不是使用密码： + + PasswordAuthentication no + RSAAuthentication yes + PubkeyAuthentication yes + +这假设了你已经在你的客户端机子上创建了带有你的用户名的一个密钥对，并将公钥复制到了你的服务器上。 + +- [开启 SSH 无密码登录][2] + +### 配置网络和名称的解析 ### + +1、 每个系统管理员都应该对下面这个系统配置文件非常熟悉： + +- /etc/hosts 被用来在小型网络中解析“名称” <---> “IP 地址”。 + +文件 `/etc/hosts` 中的每一行拥有如下的结构： + + IP address - Hostname - FQDN + +例如， + + 192.168.0.10 laptop laptop.gabrielcanepa.com.ar + +2、 `/etc/resolv.conf` 特别指定 DNS 服务器的 IP 地址和搜索域，它被用来在没有提供域名后缀时，将一个给定的查询名称对应为一个全称域名。 + +在正常情况下，你不必编辑这个文件，因为它是由系统管理的。然而，若你非要改变 DNS 服务器的 IP 地址，建议你在该文件的每一行中，都应该遵循下面的结构： + + nameserver - IP address + +例如， + + nameserver 8.8.8.8 + +3、 `/etc/host.conf` 特别指定在一个网络中主机名被解析的方法和顺序。换句话说，告诉名称解析器使用哪个服务，并以什么顺序来使用。 + +尽管这个文件由几个选项，但最为常见和基本的设置包含如下的一行： + + order bind,hosts + +它意味着解析器应该首先查看 `resolv.conf` 中特别指定的域名服务器，然后到 `/etc/hosts` 文件中查找解析的名称。 + +4、 `/etc/sysconfig/network` 包含了所有网络接口的路由和全局主机信息。下面的值可能会被使用： + + NETWORKING=yes|no + HOSTNAME=value + +其中的 value 应该是全称域名（FQDN）。 + + GATEWAY=XXX.XXX.XXX.XXX + +其中的 XXX.XXX.XXX.XXX 是网关的 IP 地址。 + + GATEWAYDEV=value + +在一个带有多个网卡的机器中， value 为网关设备名，例如 enp0s3。 + +5、 位于 `/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts` 中的文件（网络适配器配置文件）。 + +在上面提到的目录中，你将找到几个被命名为如下格式的文本文件。 + + ifcfg-name + +其中 name 为网卡的名称，由 `ip link show` 返回： + +![检查网络连接状态](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-IP-Address.png) + +*检查网络连接状态* + +例如： + +![网络文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Network-Files.png) + +*网络文件* + +除了环回接口（loopback），你还可以为你的网卡指定相似的配置。注意，假如设定了某些变量，它们将为这个指定的接口覆盖掉 `/etc/sysconfig/network` 中定义的默认值。在这篇文章中，为了能够解释清楚，每行都被加上了注释，但在实际的文件中，你应该避免加上注释： + + HWADDR=08:00:27:4E:59:37 ### 网卡的 MAC 地址 + TYPE=Ethernet ### 连接类型 + BOOTPROTO=static ### 这代表着该网卡指定了一个静态地址。 + ### 如果这个值指定为 dhcp，这个网卡会从 DHCP 服务器获取 IP 地址，并且就不应该出现以下两行。 + IPADDR=192.168.0.18 + NETMASK=255.255.255.0 + GATEWAY=192.168.0.1 + NM_CONTROLLED=no ### 应该给以太网卡设置，以便可以让 NetworkManager 可以修改这个文件。 + NAME=enp0s3 + UUID=14033805-98ef-4049-bc7b-d4bea76ed2eb + ONBOOT=yes ### 操作系统会在启动时打开这个网卡。 + +### 设定主机名 ### + +在 RHEL 7 中， `hostnamectl` 命令被同时用来查询和设定系统的主机名。 + +要展示当前的主机名，输入： + + # hostnamectl status + +![在RHEL 7 中检查系统的主机名](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-System-hostname.png) + +*检查系统的主机名* + +要更改主机名，使用 + + # hostnamectl set-hostname [new hostname] + +例如， + + # hostnamectl set-hostname cinderella + +要想使得更改生效，你需要重启 hostnamed 守护进程（这样你就不必因为要应用更改而登出并再登录系统）： + + # systemctl restart systemd-hostnamed + +![在 RHEL7 中设定系统主机名](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Set-System-Hostname.png) + +*设定系统主机名* + +另外， RHEL 7 还包含 `nmcli` 工具，它可被用来达到相同的目的。要展示主机名，运行： + + # nmcli general hostname + +且要改变主机名，则运行： + + # nmcli general hostname [new hostname] + +例如， + + # nmcli general hostname rhel7 + +![使用 nmcli 命令来设定主机名](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/nmcli-command.png) + +*使用 nmcli 命令来设定主机名* + +### 在开机时开启网络服务 ### + +作为本文的最后部分，就让我们看看如何确保网络服务在开机时被自动开启。简单来说，这个可通过创建符号链接到某些由服务的配置文件中的 `[Install]` 小节中指定的文件来实现。 + +以 firewalld（/usr/lib/systemd/system/firewalld.service） 为例： + + [Install] + WantedBy=basic.target + Alias=dbus-org.fedoraproject.FirewallD1.service + +要开启该服务，运行： + + # systemctl enable firewalld + +另一方面，要禁用 firewalld，则需要移除符号链接： + + # systemctl disable firewalld + +![在开机时开启服务](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Enable-Service-at-System-Boot.png) + +*在开机时开启服务* + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们总结了如何安装 SSH 及使用它安全地连接到一个 RHEL 服务器；如何改变主机名，并在最后如何确保在系统启动时开启服务。假如你注意到某个服务启动失败，你可以使用 `systemctl status -l [service]` 和 `journalctl -xn` 来进行排错。 + +请随意使用下面的评论框来让我们知晓你对本文的看法。提问也同样欢迎。我们期待着你的反馈！ + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-series-secure-ssh-set-hostname-enable-network-services-in-rhel-7/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-netstat-commands-for-linux-network-management/ +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-5444-1.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 09--Installing, Configuring and Securing a Web and FTP Server.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 09--Installing, Configuring and Securing a Web and FTP Server.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c1588ade99 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 09--Installing, Configuring and Securing a Web and FTP Server.md @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ +RHCSA 系列（九）: 安装、配置及加固一个 Web 和 FTP 服务器 +================================================================================ +Web 服务器（也被称为 HTTP 服务器）是在网络中将内容（最为常见的是网页，但也支持其他类型的文件）进行处理并传递给客户端的服务。 + +FTP 服务器是最为古老且最常使用的资源之一（即便到今天也是这样），在身份认证不是必须的情况下，它可通过客户端在一个网络访问文件，因为 FTP 使用没有加密的用户名和密码，所以有些情况下不需要验证也行。 + +在 RHEL 7 中可用的 web 服务器是版本号为 2.4 的 Apache HTTP 服务器。至于 FTP 服务器，我们将使用 Very Secure Ftp Daemon (又名 vsftpd) 来建立用 TLS 加固的连接。 + +![配置和加固 Apache 和 FTP 服务器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Install-Configure-Secure-Apache-FTP-Server.png) + +*RHCSA: 安装，配置及加固 Apache 和 FTP 服务器 – Part 9* + +在这篇文章中，我们将解释如何在 RHEL 7 中安装、配置和加固 web 和 FTP 服务器。 + +### 安装 Apache 和 FTP 服务器 ### + +在本指导中，我们将使用一个静态 IP 地址为 192.168.0.18/24 的 RHEL 7 服务器。为了安装 Apache 和 VSFTPD，运行下面的命令： + + # yum update && yum install httpd vsftpd + +当安装完成后，这两个服务在开始时是默认被禁用的，所以我们需要暂时手动开启它们并让它们在下一次启动时自动地开启它们： + + # systemctl start httpd + # systemctl enable httpd + # systemctl start vsftpd + # systemctl enable vsftpd + +另外，我们必须打开 80 和 21 端口，它们分别是 web 和 ftp 守护进程监听的端口，为的是允许从外面访问这些服务： + + # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-port=80/tcp --permanent + # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-service=ftp --permanent + # firewall-cmd --reload + +为了确认 web 服务工作正常，打开你的浏览器并输入服务器的 IP，则你应该可以看到如下的测试页面： + +![确认 Apache Web 服务器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Confirm-Apache-Web-Server.png) + +*确认 Apache Web 服务器* + +对于 ftp 服务器，在确保它如期望中的那样工作之前，我们必须进一步地配置它，我们将在几分钟后来做这件事。 + +### 配置并加固 Apache Web 服务器 ### + +Apache 的主要配置文件位于 `/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf` 中，但它可能依赖 `/etc/httpd/conf.d` 中的其他文件。 + +尽管默认的配置对于大多数的情形都够用了，但熟悉在 [官方文档][1] 中介绍的所有可用选项是一个不错的主意。 + +同往常一样，在编辑主配置文件前先做一个备份： + + # cp /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.$(date +%Y%m%d) + +然后用你钟爱的文本编辑器打开它，并查找下面这些变量： + +- `ServerRoot`： 服务器的配置，错误和日志文件保存的目录。 +- `Listen`： 通知 Apache 去监听特定的 IP 地址或端口。 +- `Include`: 允许包含其他配置文件，要包含的文件必须存在，否则，服务器将会失败。它恰好与 IncludeOptional 相反，假如特定的配置文件不存在，它将静默地忽略掉它们。 +- `User` 和 `Group`： 运行 httpd 服务的用户/组的名称。 +- `DocumentRoot`： Apache 为你的文档所服务的目录。默认情况下，所有的请求将在这个目录中被获取，但符号链接和别名可能会被用于指向其他位置。 +- `ServerName`： 这个指令将设定用于识别它自身的主机名（或 IP 地址）和端口。 + +安全措施的第一步将包含创建一个特定的用户和组（如 tecmint/tecmint）来运行 web 服务器，以及更改默认的端口为一个更高的端口（在这个例子中为 9000） （LCTT 译注：如果你的 Web 服务器对外公开提供服务，则不建议修改为非默认端口。）： + + ServerRoot "/etc/httpd" + Listen 192.168.0.18:9000 + User tecmint + Group tecmint + DocumentRoot "/var/www/html" + ServerName 192.168.0.18:9000 + +你可以使用下面的命令来测试配置文件： + + # apachectl configtest + +假如一切 OK，接着重启 web 服务器。 + + # systemctl restart httpd + +并别忘了在防火墙中开启新的端口（并禁用旧的端口）： + + # firewall-cmd --zone=public --remove-port=80/tcp --permanent + # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-port=9000/tcp --permanent + # firewall-cmd --reload + +请注意，由于 SELinux 策略，你只能给给 web 服务器使用如下命令所返回的端口。 + + # semanage port -l | grep -w '^http_port_t' + +假如你想让 httpd 服务使用另一个端口（如 TCP 端口 8100），你必须将它加到 SELinux 的端口上下文： + + # semanage port -a -t http_port_t -p tcp 8100 + +![添加 Apache 端口到 SELinux 策略](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Add-Apache-Port-to-SELinux-Policies.png) + +*添加 Apache 端口到 SELinux 策略* + +为了进一步加固你安装的 Apache，请遵循以下步骤： + +1. 运行 Apache 的用户不应该拥有访问 shell 的能力： + + # usermod -s /sbin/nologin tecmint + +2. 禁用目录列表功能，这是为了阻止浏览器展示一个未包含 index.html 文件的目录里的内容。 + + 编辑 `/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf` (以及虚拟主机的配置文件，假如有的话)，并确保出现在顶层的和Directory 块中的 Options 指令都被设置为 None： + + Options None + +3. 在 HTTP 响应中隐藏有关 web 服务器和操作系统的信息。像下面这样编辑文件 `/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf`： + + ServerTokens Prod + ServerSignature Off + +现在，你已经做好了从 `/var/www/html` 目录开始服务内容的准备了。 + +### 配置并加固 FTP 服务器 ### + +和 Apache 的情形类似， Vsftpd 的主配置文件 `/etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf` 带有详细的注释，且虽然对于大多数的应用实例，默认的配置应该足够了，但为了更有效率地操作 ftp 服务器，你应该开始熟悉相关的文档和 man 页 `man vsftpd.conf`（对于这点，再多的强调也不为过！）。 + +在我们的示例中，使用了这些指令： + + anonymous_enable=NO + local_enable=YES + write_enable=YES + local_umask=022 + dirmessage_enable=YES + xferlog_enable=YES + connect_from_port_20=YES + xferlog_std_format=YES + chroot_local_user=YES + allow_writeable_chroot=YES + listen=NO + listen_ipv6=YES + pam_service_name=vsftpd + userlist_enable=YES + tcp_wrappers=YES + +通过使用 `chroot_local_user=YES`，（默认情况下）本地用户在登录之后，将被限制在以用户的家目录为 chroot 监狱的环境中。这意味着本地用户将不能访问除其家目录之外的任何文件。 + +最后，为了让 ftp 能够在用户的家目录中读取文件，设置如下的 SELinux 布尔值： + + # setsebool -P ftp_home_dir on + +现在，你可以使用一个客户端例如 Filezilla 来连接一个 ftp 服务器： + +![查看 FTP 连接](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-FTP-Connection.png) + +*查看 FTP 连接* + +注意， `/var/log/xferlog` 日志将会记录下载和上传的情况，这与上图的目录列表一致： + +![监视 FTP 的下载和上传情况](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Monitor-FTP-Download-Upload.png) + +*监视 FTP 的下载和上传情况* + +另外请参考： [在 Linux 系统中使用 Trickle 来限制应用使用的 FTP 网络带宽][2] + +### 总结 ### + +在本教程中，我们解释了如何设置 web 和 ftp 服务器。由于这个主题的广泛性，涵盖这些话题的所有方面是不可能的（如虚拟主机）。因此，我推荐你也阅读这个网站中有关 [Apache][3] 的其他卓越的文章。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-series-install-and-secure-apache-web-server-and-ftp-in-rhel/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/ +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-5517-1.html +[3]:http://www.google.com/cse?cx=partner-pub-2601749019656699:2173448976&ie=UTF-8&q=virtual+hosts&sa=Search&gws_rd=cr&ei=Dy9EVbb0IdHisASnroG4Bw#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=apache diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 10--Yum Package Management, Automating Tasks with Cron and Monitoring System Logs.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 10--Yum Package Management, Automating Tasks with Cron and Monitoring System Logs.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b6805bbf4c --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 10--Yum Package Management, Automating Tasks with Cron and Monitoring System Logs.md @@ -0,0 +1,199 @@ +RHCSA 系列（九）: Yum 包管理、Cron 自动任务计划和监控系统日志 +================================================================================ + +在这篇文章中，我们将回顾如何在 RHEL7 中安装，更新和删除软件包。我们还将介绍如何使用 cron 进行任务自动化，并完成如何查找和监控系统日志文件，以及为什么这些技能是系统管理员必备技能。 + +![Yum Package Management Cron Jobs Log Monitoring Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Yum-Package-Management-Cron-Job-Log-Monitoring-Linux.jpg) + +*RHCSA: Yum包管理、任务计划和系统监控 – Part 10* + +### 使用yum 管理包 ### + +要安装一个包以及所有尚未安装的依赖包，您可以使用： + + # yum -y install package_name(s) + +package_name(s) 需要是至少一个真实的软件包名 + +例如，安装 httpd 和 mlocate（按顺序），输入。 + + # yum -y install httpd mlocate + +**注意**: 字符 y 表示绕过执行下载和安装前的确认提示。如果需要提示，你可以不用它。 + +默认情况下，yum 将安装与操作系统体系结构相匹配的包，除非通过在包名加入架构名。 + +例如，在 64 位系统上，`yum install package`将安装包的 x86_64 版本，而 `yum install package.x86`（如果有的话）将安装 32 位的。 + +有时，你想安装一个包，但不知道它的确切名称。`search all` 选项可以在当前启用的软件库中的包名称和包描述中搜索它，或者`search`选项可以在包名称中搜索。 + +比如， + + # yum search log + +将搜索安装的软件库中名字和摘要与该词（log）类似的软件，而 + + # yum search all log + +也将在包描述和网址中寻找寻找相同的关键字。 + +一旦搜索返回包列表，您可能希望在安装前显示一些信息。这时 info 选项派上了用场： + + # yum info logwatch + +![Search Package Information](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Search-Package-Information.png) + +*搜索包信息* + +您可以定期用以下命令检查更新： + + # yum check-update + +上述命令将返回可以更新的所有已安装的软件包。在下图所示的例子中，只有 rhel-7-server-rpms 有可用更新： + +![Check For Package Updates](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-For-Updates.png) + +*检查包更新* + +然后，您可以更新该包， + + # yum update rhel-7-server-rpms + +如果有几个包可以一同更新，可以使用 ` yum update` 一次性更新所有的包。 + +当你知道一个可执行文件的名称，如 ps2pdf，但不知道那个包提供了它？你可以通过 `yum whatprovides “*/[executable]”`找到: + + # yum whatprovides “*/ps2pdf” + +![Find Package Belongs to Which Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Find-Package-Information.png) + +*查找文件属于哪个包* + +当删除包时，你可以使用 `yum remove Package` ，很简单吧？Yum 是一个完整而强大的包管理器。 + + # yum remove httpd + +- 参见： [20 个管理 RHEL 7 软件包的 Yum 命令][1] + +### 文本式 RPM 工具 ### + +RPM（又名 RPM 包管理器，原意是 RedHat 软件包管理器）也可用于安装或更新独立的`rpm`格式的软件包。 + +往往使用 `-Uvh` 表明如果这个包没有安装就安装它，如果已存在就尝试更新。这里`-U`表示更新、`-v`表示显示详细输出，用`-h`显示进度条。例如 + + # rpm -Uvh package.rpm + +rpm 的另一个典型的使用方法是列出所有安装的软件包， + + # rpm -qa + +![Query All RPM Packages](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Query-All-RPM-Packages.png) + +*查询所有包* + +- 参见： [20 个管理 RHEL 7 软件包的 RPM 命令][2] + +### 使用 Cron 调度任务 ### + +Linux 和 UNIX 类操作系统包括一个称为 Cron 的工具，允许你周期性调度任务（即命令或 shell 脚本）。cron 会每分钟定时检查 /var/spool/cron 目录中有在 /etc/passwd 帐户文件中指定用户名的文件。 + +执行命令时，命令输出是发送到该 crontab 的所有者（或者可以在 /etc/crontab，通过 MAILTO 环境变量中指定用户）。 + +crontab 文件（可以通过键入 `crontab -e`并按 Enter 键创建）的格式如下： + +![Crontab Entries](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Crontab-Format.png) + +*crontab条目* + +因此，如果我们想在每个月第二天上午2:15更新本地文件数据库（用于按名字或通配模式定位文件），我们需要添加以下 crontab 条目： + + 15 02 2 * * /bin/updatedb + +以上的条目的意思是：”每年每月第二天的凌晨 2：15 运行 /bin/updatedb，无论是周几”，我想你也猜到了。星号作为通配符。 + +正如我们前面所提到的，添加一个 cron 任务后，你可以看到一个名为 root 的文件被添加在 /var/spool/cron。该文件列出了所有的 crond 守护进程应该运行的任务： + + # ls -l /var/spool/cron + +![Check All Cron Jobs](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-All-Cron-Jobs.png) + +*检查所有cron任务* + +在上图中，显示当前用户的 crontab 可以使用 `cat /var/spool/cron` 或 + + # crontab -l + +如果你需要在一个更精细的时间上运行的任务（例如，一天两次或每月三次），cron 也可以做到。 + +例如，每个月1号和15号运行 /my/script 并将输出导出到 /dev/null （丢弃输出），您可以添加如下两个crontab 条目： + + 01 00 1 * * /myscript > /dev/null 2>&1 + 01 00 15 * * /my/script > /dev/null 2>&1 + +不过为了简单，你可以将他们合并： + + 01 00 1,15 * * /my/script > /dev/null 2>&1 + +跟着前面的例子，我们可以在每三个月的第一天的凌晨1：30运行 /my/other/script。 + + 30 01 1 1,4,7,10 * /my/other/script > /dev/null 2>&1 + +但是当你必须每隔某分钟、小时、天或月来重复某个任务时，你可以通过所需的频率来划分正确的时间。以下与前一个 crontab 条目具有相同的意义： + + 30 01 1 */3 * /my/other/script > /dev/null 2>&1 + +或者也许你需要在一个固定的频率或系统启动后运行某个固定的工作，你可以使用下列五个字符串中的一个字符串来指示你想让你的任务计划工作的确切时间： + + @reboot 仅系统启动时运行 + @yearly 一年一次, 类似与 00 00 1 1 * + @monthly 一月一次, 类似与 00 00 1 * * + @weekly 一周一次, 类似与 00 00 * * 0 + @daily 一天一次, 类似与 00 00 * * * + @hourly 一小时一次, 类似与 00 * * * * + +- 参见：[11 个在 RHEL7 中调度任务的命令][3] + +### 定位和查看日志### + +系统日志存放（并轮转）在 /var/log 目录。根据 Linux 的文件系统层次标准（Linux Filesystem Hierarchy Standard），这个目录包括各种日志文件，并包含一些必要的子目录（如 audit、 httpd 或 samba ，如下图)，并由相应的系统守护进程操作： + + # ls /var/log + +![Linux Log Files Location](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Linux-Log-Files.png) + +*Linux 日志的位置* + +其他感兴趣的日志比如 [dmesg][4]（包括了所有内核层缓冲区的消息），secure（记录要求用户认证的连接请求)，messages（系统级信息），和 wtmp（记录了所有用户的登录、登出）。 + +日志是非常重要的，它们让你可以看到任何时刻发生在你的系统的事情，以及已经过去的事情。他们是无价的工具，可以排错和监测一个 Linux 服务器，通常使用 `tail -f` 命令来实时显示正在发生和写入日志的事件。 + +举个例子，如果你想看你的内核相关的日志，你需要输入如下命令： + + # tail -f /var/log/dmesg + +同样的，如果你想查看你的 Web 服务器日志，你需要输入如下命令： + + # tail -f /var/log/httpd/access.log + +### 总结 ### + +如果你知道如何有效的管理包、调度任务、以及知道在哪寻找系统当前和过去操作的信息，你可以放松工作而不会总被吓到。我希望这篇文章能够帮你学习或回顾这些基础知识。 + +如果你有任何问题或意见，请使用下面的表单反馈给我们。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/yum-package-management-cron-job-scheduling-monitoring-linux-logs/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[xiqingongzi](https://github.com/xiqingongzi) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-linux-yum-yellowdog-updater-modified-commands-for-package-mangement/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-practical-examples-of-rpm-commands-in-linux/ +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/11-cron-scheduling-task-examples-in-linux/ +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/dmesg-commands/ + diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 11--Firewall Essentials and Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 11--Firewall Essentials and Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f770d09353 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 11--Firewall Essentials and Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables.md @@ -0,0 +1,192 @@ +RHCSA 系列（十一）: 使用 firewalld 和 iptables 来控制网络流量 +================================================================================ + +简单来说，防火墙就是一个基于一系列预先定义的规则（例如流量包的目的地或来源，流量的类型等）的安全系统，它控制着一个网络中的流入和流出流量。 + +![使用 FirewallD 和 Iptables 来控制网络流量](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Control-Network-Traffic-Using-Firewall.png) + +*RHCSA: 使用 FirewallD 和 Iptables 来控制网络流量 – Part 11* + +在本文中，我们将回顾 firewalld 和 iptables 的基础知识。前者是 RHEL 7 中的默认动态防火墙守护进程，而后者则是针对 Linux 的传统的防火墙服务，大多数的系统和网络管理员都非常熟悉它，并且在 RHEL 7 中也可以用。 + +### FirewallD 和 Iptables 的一个比较 ### + +在后台， firewalld 和 iptables 服务都通过相同的接口来与内核中的 netfilter 框架相交流，这不足为奇，即它们都通过 iptables 命令来与 netfilter 交互。然而，与 iptables 服务相反， firewalld 可以在不丢失现有连接的情况下，在正常的系统操作期间更改设定。 + +在默认情况下， firewalld 应该已经安装在你的 RHEL 系统中了，尽管它可能没有在运行。你可以使用下面的命令来确认（firewall-config 是用户界面配置工具）： + + # yum info firewalld firewall-config + +![检查 FirewallD 的信息](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-FirewallD-Information.png) + +*检查 FirewallD 的信息* + +以及， + + # systemctl status -l firewalld.service + +![检查 FirewallD 的状态](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-FirewallD-Status.png) + +*检查 FirewallD 的状态* + +另一方面， iptables 服务在默认情况下没有被包含在 RHEL 系统中，但可以被安装上。 + + # yum update && yum install iptables-services + +这两个守护进程都可以使用常规的 systemd 命令来在开机时被启动和开启： + + # systemctl start firewalld.service | iptables-service.service + # systemctl enable firewalld.service | iptables-service.service + +另外，请阅读：[管理 Systemd 服务的实用命令][1] + +至于配置文件， iptables 服务使用 `/etc/sysconfig/iptables` 文件（假如这个软件包在你的系统中没有被安装，则这个文件将不存在）。在一个被用作集群节点的 RHEL 7 机子上，这个文件看起来是这样： + +![Iptables 防火墙配置文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Iptables-Rules.png) + +*Iptables 防火墙配置文件* + +而 firewalld 则在两个目录中存储它的配置文件，即 `/usr/lib/firewalld` 和 `/etc/firewalld`： + + # ls /usr/lib/firewalld /etc/firewalld + +![FirewallD 的配置文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Firewalld-configuration.png) + +*FirewallD 的配置文件* + +在这篇文章中后面，我们将进一步查看这些配置文件，在那之后，我们将在这两个地方添加一些规则。现在，是时候提醒你了，你总可以使用下面的命令来找到更多有关这两个工具的信息。 + + # man firewalld.conf + # man firewall-cmd + # man iptables + +除了这些，记得查看一下当前系列的第一篇 [RHCSA 系列（一）: 回顾基础命令及系统文档][2]，在其中我描述了几种渠道来得到安装在你的 RHEL 7 系统上的软件包的信息。 + +### 使用 Iptables 来控制网络流量 ### + +在进一步深入之前，或许你需要参考 Linux 基金会认证工程师（Linux Foundation Certified Engineer,LFCE） 系列中的 [配置 Iptables 防火墙 – Part 8][3] 来复习你脑中有关 iptables 的知识。 + +**例 1：同时允许流入和流出的网络流量** + +TCP 端口 80 和 443 是 Apache web 服务器使用的用来处理常规（HTTP）和安全（HTTPS）网络流量的默认端口。你可以像下面这样在 enp0s3 接口上允许流入和流出网络流量通过这两个端口： + + # iptables -A INPUT -i enp0s3 -p tcp --dport 80 -m state --state NEW,ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT + # iptables -A OUTPUT -o enp0s3 -p tcp --sport 80 -m state --state ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT + # iptables -A INPUT -i enp0s3 -p tcp --dport 443 -m state --state NEW,ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT + # iptables -A OUTPUT -o enp0s3 -p tcp --sport 443 -m state --state ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT + +**例 2：从某个特定网络中阻挡所有（或某些）流入连接** + +或许有时你需要阻挡来自于某个特定网络的所有（或某些）类型的来源流量，比方说 192.168.1.0/24： + + # iptables -I INPUT -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j DROP + +上面的命令将丢掉所有来自 192.168.1.0/24 网络的网络包，而 + + # iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.1.0/24 --dport 22 -j ACCEPT + +将只允许通过端口 22 的流入流量。 + +**例 3：将流入流量重定向到另一个目的地** + +假如你不仅使用你的 RHEL 7 机子来作为一个软件防火墙，而且还将它作为一个硬件防火墙，使得它位于两个不同的网络之间，那么在你的系统上 IP 转发一定已经被开启了。假如没有开启，你需要编辑 `/etc/sysctl.conf` 文件并将 `net.ipv4.ip_forward` 的值设为 1，即： + + net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1 + +接着保存更改，关闭你的文本编辑器，并最终运行下面的命令来应用更改： + + # sysctl -p /etc/sysctl.conf + +例如，你可能在一个内部的机子上安装了一个打印机，它的 IP 地址为 192.168.0.10，CUPS 服务在端口 631 上进行监听（同时在你的打印服务器和你的防火墙上）。为了从防火墙另一边的客户端传递打印请求，你应该添加下面的 iptables 规则： + + # iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i enp0s3 -p tcp --dport 631 -j DNAT --to 192.168.0.10:631 + +请记住 iptables 会逐条地读取它的规则，所以请确保默认的策略或后面的规则不会重载上面例子中那些规则。 + +### FirewallD 入门 ### + +firewalld 引入的一个变化是区域（zone） （注：翻译参考了 https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/FirewallD/zh-cn ）。这个概念允许将网路划分为拥有不同信任级别的区域，由用户决定将设备和流量放置到哪个区域。 + +要获取活动的区域，使用： + + # firewall-cmd --get-active-zones + +在下面的例子中，public 区域是激活的，并且 enp0s3 接口被自动地分配到了这个区域。要查看有关一个特定区域的所有信息，可使用： + + # firewall-cmd --zone=public --list-all + +![列出所有的 Firewalld 区域](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/View-FirewallD-Zones.png) + +*列出所有的 Firewalld 区域* + +由于你可以在 [RHEL 7 安全指南][4] 中阅读到更多有关区域的知识，这里我们将仅列出一些特别的例子。 + +**例 4：允许服务通过防火墙** + +要获取受支持的服务的列表，可以使用： + + # firewall-cmd --get-services + +![列出所有受支持的服务](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/List-All-Supported-Services.png) + +*列出所有受支持的服务* + +要立刻生效且在随后重启后都可以让 http 和 https 网络流量通过防火墙，可以这样： + + # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --add-service=http + # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --permanent --add-service=http + # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --add-service=https + # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --permanent --add-service=https + # firewall-cmd --reload + +假如 `-–zone` 被忽略，则使用默认的区域（你可以使用 `firewall-cmd –get-default-zone`来查看）。 + +若要移除这些规则，可以在上面的命令中将 `add` 替换为 `remove`。 + +**例 5：IP 转发或端口转发** + +首先，你需要查看在目标区域中，伪装（masquerading）是否被开启： + + # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --query-masquerade + +在下面的图片中，我们可以看到对于外部区域，伪装已被开启，但对于公用区域则没有： + +![在 firewalld 中查看伪装状态](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-masquerading.png) + +*查看伪装状态* + +你可以为公共区域开启伪装： + + # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-masquerade + +或者在外部区域中使用伪装。下面是使用 firewalld 来重复例 3 中的任务所需的命令： + + # firewall-cmd --zone=external --add-forward-port=port=631:proto=tcp:toport=631:toaddr=192.168.0.10 + +不要忘了重新加载防火墙。 + +在 RHCSA 系列的 [第九部分][5] 你可以找到更深入的例子，在那篇文章中我们解释了如何允许或禁用通常被 web 服务器和 ftp 服务器使用的端口，以及在针对这两个服务所使用的默认端口被改变时，如何更改相应的规则。另外，你或许想参考 firewalld 的 wiki 来查看更深入的例子。 + +- 延伸阅读： [在 RHEL 7 中配置防火墙的几个实用的 firewalld 例子][6] + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们已经解释了防火墙是什么，介绍了在 RHEL 7 中用来实现防火墙的几个可用的服务，并提供了可以帮助你入门防火墙的几个例子。假如你有任何的评论，建议或问题，请随意使用下面的评论框来让我们知晓。这里就事先感谢了！ + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/firewalld-vs-iptables-and-control-network-traffic-in-firewall/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-5926-1.html +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6133-1.html +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/configure-iptables-firewall/ +[4]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/Security_Guide/sec-Using_Firewalls.html +[5]:https://linux.cn/article-6286-1.html +[6]:http://www.tecmint.com/firewalld-rules-for-centos-7/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 12--Automate RHEL 7 Installations Using 'Kickstart'.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 12--Automate RHEL 7 Installations Using 'Kickstart'.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..27ae044218 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 12--Automate RHEL 7 Installations Using 'Kickstart'.md @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +RHCSA 系列（十二）: 使用 Kickstart 完成 RHEL 7 的自动化安装 +================================================================================ + +无论是在数据中心还是实验室环境，Linux 服务器很少是独立的机器，很可能有时你需要安装多个以某种方式相互联系的机器。假如你将在单个服务器上手动安装 RHEL 7 所花的时间乘以你需要配置的机器数量，这将导致你必须做出一场相当长的努力，而通过使用被称为 kicksta 的无人值守安装工具则可以避免这样的麻烦。 + +在这篇文章中，我们将向你展示使用 kickstart 工具时所需的一切，以便在安装过程中，不用你时不时地照看“处在襁褓中”的服务器。 + +![RHEL 7 的自动化 Kickstart 安装](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Automatic-Kickstart-Installation-of-RHEL-7.jpg) + +*RHCSA： RHEL 7 的自动化 Kickstart 安装* + +#### Kickstart 和自动化安装简介 #### + +Kickstart 是一种被用来执行无人值守操作系统安装和配置的自动化安装方法，主要被 RHEL（以及其他 Fedora 的副产品，如 CentOS，Oracle Linux 等）所使用。因此，kickstart 安装方法可使得系统管理员只需考虑需要安装的软件包组和系统的配置，便可以得到相同的系统，从而省去必须手动安装这些软件包的麻烦。 + +### 准备 Kickstart 安装 ### + +要执行 kickstart 安装，我们需要遵循下面的这些步骤： + +1. 创建一个 Kickstart 文件，它是一个带有多个预定义配置选项的纯文本文件。 + +2. 将 Kickstart 文件保存在可移动介质上，如一个硬盘或一个网络位置。kickstart 客户端需要使用 `rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-boot.iso` 镜像文件，而你还需要可从一个网络资源上获取得到完整的 ISO 镜像 `rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso` ，例如通过一个 FTP 服务器的 HTTP 服务形式（在我们当前的例子中，我们将使用另一个 IP 地址为 192.168.0.18 的 RHEL 7 机器）。 + +3. 开始 Kickstart 安装。 + +要创建一个 kickstart 文件，请登录你的红帽客户门户网站（Red Hat Customer Portal）帐户，并使用 [Kickstart 配置工具][1] 来选择所需的安装选项。在向下滑动之前请仔细阅读每个选项，然后选择最适合你需求的选项： + +![Kickstart 配置工具](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Kickstart-Configuration-Tool.png) + +*Kickstart 配置工具* + +假如你指定安装将通过 HTTP，FTP，NFS 来执行，请确保服务器上的防火墙允许这些服务通过。 + +尽管你可以使用红帽的在线工具来创建一个 kickstart 文件，但你还可以使用下面的代码来作为参考手动地创建它。例如，你可以注意到，下面的代码指定了安装过程将使用英语环境，使用拉丁美洲键盘布局，并设定时区为 America/Argentina/San_Luis 时区： + + lang en_US + keyboard la-latin1 + timezone America/Argentina/San_Luis --isUtc + rootpw $1$5sOtDvRo$In4KTmX7OmcOW9HUvWtfn0 --iscrypted + #platform x86, AMD64, or Intel EM64T + text + url --url=http://192.168.0.18//kickstart/media + bootloader --location=mbr --append="rhgb quiet crashkernel=auto" + zerombr + clearpart --all --initlabel + autopart + auth --passalgo=sha512 --useshadow + selinux --enforcing + firewall --enabled + firstboot --disable + %packages + @base + @backup-server + @print-server + %end + +在上面的在线配置工具中，在选择以 HTTP 来作为安装源后，设置好在安装过程中使用 192.168.0.18 来作为 HTTP 服务器的地址，`/kickstart/tecmint.bin` 作为 HTTP 目录。 + +在上面的 kickstart 示例文件中，你需要特别注意 + + url --url=http://192.168.0.18//kickstart/media + +这个目录是你展开 DVD 或 ISO 安装介质内容的地方。在执行解压之前，我们将把 ISO 安装文件作为一个回环设备挂载到 /media/rhel 目录下： + + # mount -o loop /var/www/html/kickstart/rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso /media/rhel + +![挂载 RHEL ISO 镜像](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Mount-RHEL-ISO-Image.png) + +*挂载 RHEL ISO 镜像* + +接下来，复制 /media/rhel 中的全部文件到 /var/www/html/kickstart/media 目录： + + # cp -R /media/rhel /var/www/html/kickstart/media + +这一步做完后，/var/www/html/kickstart/media 目录中的文件列表和磁盘使用情况将如下所示： + +![Kickstart 媒体文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Kickstart-media-Files.png) + +*Kickstart 媒体文件* + +现在，我们已经准备好开始 kickstart 安装了。 + +不管你如何选择创建 kickstart 文件的方式，在执行安装之前检查下这个文件的语法是否有误总是一个不错的主意。为此，我们需要安装 pykickstart 软件包。 + + # yum update && yum install pykickstart + +然后使用 ksvalidator 工具来检查这个文件： + + # ksvalidator /var/www/html/kickstart/tecmint.bin + +假如文件中的语法正确，你将不会得到任何输出，反之，假如文件中存在错误，你得到警告，向你提示在某一行中语法不正确或出错原因未知。 + +### 执行 Kickstart 安装 ### + +首先，使用 rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-boot.iso 来启动你的客户端。当初始屏幕出现时，选择安装 RHEL 7.0 ，然后按 Tab 键来追加下面这一句，接着按 Enter 键： + + # inst.ks=http://192.168.0.18/kickstart/tecmint.bin + +![RHEL Kickstart 安装](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/RHEL-Kickstart-Installation.png) + +*RHEL Kickstart 安装* + +其中 tecmint.bin 是先前创建的 kickstart 文件。 + +当你按了 Enter 键后，自动安装就开始了，且你将看到一个列有正在被安装的软件的列表（软件包的数目和名称根据你所选择的程序和软件包组而有所不同）： + +![RHEL 7 的自动化 Kickstart 安装](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Kickstart-Automatic-Installation.png) + +*RHEL 7 的自动化 Kickstart 安装* + +当自动化过程结束后，将提示你移除安装介质，接着你就可以启动到你新安装的系统中了： + +![RHEL 7 启动屏幕](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/RHEL-7.png) + +*RHEL 7 启动屏幕* + +尽管你可以像我们前面提到的那样，手动地创建你的 kickstart 文件，但你应该尽可能地考虑使用受推荐的方式：你可以使用在线配置工具，或者使用在安装过程中创建的位于 root 家目录下的 anaconda-ks.cfg 文件。 + +这个文件实际上就是一个 kickstart 文件，你或许想在选择好所有所需的选项（可能需要更改逻辑卷布局或机器上所用的文件系统）后手动地安装第一个机器，接着使用产生的 anaconda-ks.cfg 文件来自动完成其余机器的安装过程。 + +另外，使用在线配置工具或 anaconda-ks.cfg 文件来引导将来的安装将允许你在系统安装时以加密的形式设置 root 密码。 + +### 总结 ### + +既然你知道了如何创建 kickstart 文件并如何使用它们来自动完成 RHEL 7 服务器的安装，你就可以不用时时照看安装进度的过程了。这将给你时间来做其他的事情，或者若你足够幸运，你还可以用来休闲一番。 + +无论以何种方式，请使用下面的评论栏来让我们知晓你对这篇文章的看法。提问也同样欢迎！ + +另外，请阅读：[使用 PXE 和 kickstart 来自动化安装多个 RHEL/CentOS 7 发行版本][2] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/automatic-rhel-installations-using-kickstart/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:https://access.redhat.com/labs/kickstartconfig/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/multiple-centos-installations-using-kickstart/ diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 13--Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux in RHEL 7.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 13--Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux in RHEL 7.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8e77f8495e --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 13--Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux in RHEL 7.md @@ -0,0 +1,179 @@ +RHCSA 系列（十三）： 在 RHEL 7 中使用 SELinux 进行强制访问控制 +================================================================================ + +在本系列的前面几篇文章中，我们已经详细地探索了至少两种访问控制方法：标准的 ugo/rwx 权限（[RHCSA 系列（三）: 如何管理 RHEL7 的用户和组][1]） 和访问控制列表（[RHCSA 系列（七）: 使用 ACL（访问控制列表) 和挂载 Samba/NFS 共享][2]）。 + +![RHCSA 认证：SELinux 精要和控制文件系统的访问](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/SELinux-Control-File-System-Access.png) + +*RHCSA 认证：SELinux 精要和控制文件系统的访问* + +尽管作为第一级别的权限和访问控制机制是必要的，但它们同样有一些局限，而这些局限则可以由安全增强 Linux(Security Enhanced Linux，简称为 SELinux) 来处理。 + +这些局限的一种情形是：某个用户可能通过一个泛泛的 chmod 命令将文件或目录暴露出现了安全违例，从而引起访问权限的意外传播。结果，由该用户开启的任意进程可以对属于该用户的文件进行任意的操作，最终一个恶意的或有其它缺陷的软件可能会取得整个系统的 root 级别的访问权限。 + +考虑到这些局限性，美国国家安全局（NSA） 率先设计出了 SELinux，一种强制的访问控制方法，它根据最小权限模型去限制进程在系统对象（如文件，目录，网络接口等）上的访问或执行其他的操作的能力，而这些限制可以在之后根据需要进行修改。简单来说，系统的每一个元素只给某个功能所需要的那些权限。 + +在 RHEL 7 中，SELinux 被并入了内核中，且默认情况下以强制模式（Enforcing）开启。在这篇文章中，我们将简要地介绍有关 SELinux 及其相关操作的基本概念。 + +### SELinux 的模式 ### + +SELinux 可以以三种不同的模式运行： + +- 强制模式（Enforcing）：SELinux 基于其策略规则来拒绝访问，这些规则是用以控制安全引擎的一系列准则； +- 宽容模式（Permissive）：SELinux 不会拒绝访问，但对于那些如果运行在强制模式下会被拒绝访问的行为进行记录； +- 关闭（Disabled） (不言自明，即 SELinux 没有实际运行). + +使用 `getenforce` 命令可以展示 SELinux 当前所处的模式，而 `setenforce` 命令（后面跟上一个 1 或 0） 则被用来将当前模式切换到强制模式（Enforcing）或宽容模式（Permissive），但只对当前的会话有效。 + +为了使得在登出和重启后上面的设置还能保持作用，你需要编辑 `/etc/selinux/config` 文件并将 SELINUX 变量的值设为 enforcing，permissive，disabled 中之一： + + # getenforce + # setenforce 0 + # getenforce + # setenforce 1 + # getenforce + # cat /etc/selinux/config + +![设置 SELinux 模式](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Set-SELinux-Mode.png) + +*设置 SELinux 模式* + +通常情况下，你应该使用 `setenforce` 来在 SELinux 模式间进行切换（从强制模式到宽容模式，或反之），以此来作为你排错的第一步。假如 SELinux 当前被设置为强制模式，而你遇到了某些问题，但当你把 SELinux 切换为宽容模式后问题不再出现了，则你可以确信你遇到了一个 SELinux 权限方面的问题。 + +### SELinux 上下文 ### + +一个 SELinux 上下文（Context）由一个访问控制环境所组成，在这个环境中，决定的做出将基于 SELinux 的用户，角色和类型（和可选的级别）： + +- 一个 SELinux 用户是通过将一个常规的 Linux 用户账户映射到一个 SELinux 用户账户来实现的，反过来，在一个会话中，这个 SELinux 用户账户在 SELinux 上下文中被进程所使用，以便能够明确定义它们所允许的角色和级别。 +- 角色的概念是作为域和处于该域中的 SELinux 用户之间的媒介，它定义了 SELinux 可以访问到哪个进程域和哪些文件类型。这将保护您的系统免受提权漏洞的攻击。 +- 类型则定义了一个 SELinux 文件类型或一个 SELinux 进程域。在正常情况下，进程将会被禁止访问其他进程正使用的文件，并禁止对其他进程进行访问。这样只有当一个特定的 SELinux 策略规则允许它访问时，才能够进行访问。 + +下面就让我们看看这些概念是如何在下面的例子中起作用的。 + +**例 1：改变 sshd 守护进程的默认端口** + +在 [RHCSA 系列（八）: 加固 SSH，设定主机名及启用网络服务][3] 中，我们解释了更改 sshd 所监听的默认端口是加固你的服务器免受外部攻击的首要安全措施。下面，就让我们编辑 `/etc/ssh/sshd_config` 文件并将端口设置为 9999： + + Port 9999 + +保存更改并重启 sshd： + + # systemctl restart sshd + # systemctl status sshd + +![更改 SSH 的端口](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Change-SSH-Port.png) + +*重启 SSH 服务* + +正如你看到的那样， sshd 启动失败，但为什么会这样呢？ + +快速检查 `/var/log/audit/audit.log` 文件会发现 sshd 已经被拒绝在端口 9999 上开启（SELinux 的日志信息包含单词 "AVC"，所以这类信息可以被轻易地与其他信息相区分），因为这个端口是 JBoss 管理服务的保留端口： + + # cat /var/log/audit/audit.log | grep AVC | tail -1 + +![查看 SSH 日志](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Inspect-SSH-Logs.png) + +*查看 SSH 日志* + +在这种情况下，你可以像先前解释的那样禁用 SELinux（但请不要这样做！），并尝试重启 sshd，且这种方法能够起效。但是， `semanage` 应用可以告诉我们在哪些端口上可以开启 sshd 而不会出现任何问题。 + +运行： + + # semanage port -l | grep ssh + +便可以得到一个 SELinux 允许 sshd 在哪些端口上监听的列表： + +![Semanage 工具](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/SELinux-Permission.png) + +*Semanage 工具* + +所以让我们在 `/etc/ssh/sshd_config` 中将端口更改为 9998 端口，增加这个端口到 ssh_port_t 的上下文，然后重启 sshd 服务： + + # semanage port -a -t ssh_port_t -p tcp 9998 + # systemctl restart sshd + # systemctl is-active sshd + +![Semanage 添加端口](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Semenage-Add-Port.png) + +*semanage 添加端口* + +如你所见，这次 sshd 服务被成功地开启了。这个例子告诉我们一个事实：SELinux 用它自己的端口类型的内部定义来控制 TCP 端口号。 + +**例 2：允许 httpd 访问 sendmail** + +这是一个 SELinux 管理一个进程来访问另一个进程的例子。假如在你的 RHEL 7 服务器上，[你要为 Apache 配置 mod\_security 和 mod\_evasive][6]，你需要允许 httpd 访问 sendmail，以便在遭受到 (D)DoS 攻击时能够用邮件来提醒你。在下面的命令中，如果你不想使得更改在重启后仍然生效，请去掉 `-P` 选项。 + + # semanage boolean -1 | grep httpd_can_sendmail + # setsebool -P httpd_can_sendmail 1 + # semanage boolean -1 | grep httpd_can_sendmail + +![允许 Apache 发送邮件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Allow-Apache-to-Send-Mails.png) + +*允许 Apache 发送邮件* + +从上面的例子中，你可以知道 SELinux 布尔设定（或者只是布尔值）分别对应于 true 或 false，被嵌入到了 SELinux 策略中。你可以使用 `semanage boolean -l` 来列出所有的布尔值，也可以管道至 grep 命令以便筛选输出的结果。 + +**例 3：在一个特定目录而非默认目录下提供一个静态站点服务** + +假设你正使用一个不同于默认目录（`/var/www/html`）的目录来提供一个静态站点服务，例如 `/websites` 目录（这种情形会出现在当你把你的网络文件存储在一个共享网络设备上，并需要将它挂载在 /websites 目录时）。 + +a). 在 /websites 下创建一个 index.html 文件并包含如下的内容： + + +

SELinux test

+ + +假如你执行 + + # ls -lZ /websites/index.html + +你将会看到这个 index.html 已经被标记上了 default_t SELinux 类型，而 Apache 不能访问这类文件： + +![检查 SELinux 文件的权限](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-File-Permssion.png) + +*检查 SELinux 文件的权限* + +b). 将 `/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf` 中的 DocumentRoot 改为 /websites，并不要忘了 +更新相应的 Directory 块。然后重启 Apache。 + +c). 浏览 `http://`，则你应该会得到一个 503 Forbidden 的 HTTP 响应。 + +d). 接下来，递归地改变 /websites 的标志，将它的标志变为 `httpd_sys_content_t` 类型，以便赋予 Apache 对这些目录和其内容的只读访问权限： + + # semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t "/websites(/.*)?" + +e). 最后，应用在 d) 中创建的 SELinux 策略： + + # restorecon -R -v /websites + +现在重启 Apache 并再次浏览到 `http://`，则你可以看到被正确展现出来的 html 文件： + +![确认 Apache 页面](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/08part13.png) + +*确认 Apache 页面* + +### 总结 ### + +在本文中，我们详细地介绍了 SELinux 的基础知识。请注意，由于这个主题的广泛性，在单篇文章中做出一个完全详尽的解释是不可能的，但我们相信，在这个指南中列出的基本原则将会对你进一步了解更高级的话题有所帮助，假如你想了解的话。 + +假如可以，请让我推荐两个必要的资源来入门 SELinux：[NSA SELinux 页面][4] 和 [针对用户和系统管理员的 RHEL 7 SELinux 指南][5]。 + +假如你有任何的问题或评论，请不要犹豫，让我们知晓吧。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/selinux-essentials-and-control-filesystem-access/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-6187-1.html +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6263-1.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-6266-1.html +[4]:https://www.nsa.gov/research/selinux/index.shtml +[5]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/SELinux_Users_and_Administrators_Guide/part_I-SELinux.html +[6]:https://linux.cn/article-5639-1.html diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 14--Setting Up LDAP-based Authentication in RHEL 7.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 14--Setting Up LDAP-based Authentication in RHEL 7.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a071f4dc33 --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 14--Setting Up LDAP-based Authentication in RHEL 7.md @@ -0,0 +1,275 @@ +RHCSA 系列（十四）： 在 RHEL 7 中设置基于 LDAP 的认证 +================================================================================ +在这篇文章中，我们将首先罗列一些 LDAP 的基础知识（它是什么，它被用于何处以及为什么会被这样使用），然后向你展示如何使用 RHEL 7 系统来设置一个 LDAP 服务器以及配置一个客户端来使用它达到认证的目的。 + +![设置 LDAP 服务器及客户端认证](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/setup-ldap-server-and-configure-client-authentication.png) + +*RHCSA 系列：设置 LDAP 服务器及客户端认证 – Part 14* + +正如你将看到的那样，关于认证，还存在其他可能的应用场景，但在这篇指南中，我们将只关注基于 LDAP 的认证。另外，请记住，由于这个话题的广泛性，在这里我们将只涵盖它的基础知识，但你可以参考位于总结部分中列出的文档，以此来了解更加深入的细节。 + +基于相同的原因，你将注意到：为了简洁起见，我已经决定省略了几个位于 man 页中 LDAP 工具的参考，但相应命令的解释是近在咫尺的（例如，输入 man ldapadd）。 + +那还是让我们开始吧。 + +**我们的测试环境** + +我们的测试环境包含两台 RHEL 7机器： + + Server: 192.168.0.18. FQDN: rhel7.mydomain.com + Client: 192.168.0.20. FQDN: ldapclient.mydomain.com + +如若你想，你可以使用在 [RHCSA 系列（十二）: 使用 Kickstart 完成 RHEL 7 的自动化安装][1] 中使用 Kickstart 安装的机子来作为客户端。 + +#### LDAP 是什么？ #### + +LDAP 代表轻量级目录访问协议（Lightweight Directory Access Protocol），并包含在一系列协议之中，这些协议允许一个客户端通过网络去获取集中存储的信息（例如所登录的 shell 的路径，家目录的绝对路径，或者其他典型的系统用户信息），而这些信息可以从不同的地方访问到或被很多终端用户获取到（另一个例子是含有某个公司所有雇员的家庭地址和电话号码的目录）。 + +对于那些被赋予了权限可以使用这些信息的人来说，将这些信息进行集中管理意味着可以更容易地维护和获取。 + +下面的图表提供了一个简化了的关于 LDAP 的示意图，在下面将会进行更多的描述： + +![LDAP 示意图](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Diagram.png) + +*LDAP 示意图* + +下面是对上面示意图的一个详细解释。 + +- 在一个 LDAP 目录中，一个条目（entry）代表一个独立单元或信息，被所谓的 Distinguished Name（DN，区别名） 唯一识别。 +- 一个属性（attribute）是一些与某个条目相关的信息（例如地址，有效的联系电话号码和邮箱地址）。 +- 每个属性被分配有一个或多个值（value），这些值被包含在一个以空格为分隔符的列表中。每个条目中那个唯一的值被称为一个 Relative Distinguished Name（RDN，相对区别名）。 + +接下来，就让我们进入到有关服务器和客户端安装的内容。 + +### 安装和配置一个 LDAP 服务器和客户端 ### + +在 RHEL 7 中， LDAP 由 OpenLDAP 实现。为了安装服务器和客户端，分别使用下面的命令： + + # yum update && yum install openldap openldap-clients openldap-servers + # yum update && yum install openldap openldap-clients nss-pam-ldapd + +一旦安装完成，我们还需要关注一些事情。除非显示地提示，下面的步骤都只在服务器上执行： + +**1. 在服务器和客户端上，为了确保 SELinux 不会妨碍挡道，长久地开启下列的布尔值：** + + # setsebool -P allow_ypbind=0 authlogin_nsswitch_use_ldap=0 + +其中 `allow_ypbind` 为基于 LDAP 的认证所需要，而 `authlogin_nsswitch_use_ldap`则可能会被某些应用所需要。 + +**2. 开启并启动服务：** + + # systemctl enable slapd.service + # systemctl start slapd.service + +记住你也可以使用 [systemctl][2] 来禁用，重启或停止服务： + + # systemctl disable slapd.service + # systemctl restart slapd.service + # systemctl stop slapd.service + +**3. 由于 slapd 服务是由 ldap 用户来运行的（你可以使用 `ps -e -o pid,uname,comm | grep slapd` 来验证），为了使得服务器能够更改由管理工具创建的条目，该用户应该有目录 `/var/lib/ldap` 的所有权，而这些管理工具仅可以由 root 用户来运行（紧接着有更多这方面的内容）。** + +在递归地更改这个目录的所有权之前，将 slapd 的示例数据库配置文件复制进这个目录： + + # cp /usr/share/openldap-servers/DB_CONFIG.example /var/lib/ldap/DB_CONFIG + # chown -R ldap:ldap /var/lib/ldap + +**4. 设置一个 OpenLDAP 管理用户并设置密码：** + + # slappasswd + +正如下一幅图所展示的那样： + +![设置 LDAP 管理密码](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Set-LDAP-Admin-Password.png) + +*设置 LDAP 管理密码* + +然后以下面的内容创建一个 LDIF 文件(`ldaprootpasswd.ldif`)： + + dn: olcDatabase={0}config,cn=config + changetype: modify + add: olcRootPW + olcRootPW: {SSHA}PASSWORD + +其中： + +- PASSWORD 是先前得到的经过哈希处理的字符串。 +- cn=config 指的是全局配置选项。 +- olcDatabase 指的是一个特定的数据库实例的名称，并且通常可以在 `/etc/openldap/slapd.d/cn=config` 目录中发现。 + +根据上面提供的理论背景，`ldaprootpasswd.ldif` 文件将添加一个条目到 LDAP 目录中。在那个条目中，每一行代表一个属性键值对（其中 dn，changetype，add 和 olcRootPW 为属性，每个冒号右边的字符串为相应的键值）。 + +随着我们的进一步深入，请记住上面的这些，并注意到在这篇文章的余下部分，我们使用相同的 Common Names（通用名） `(cn=)`，而这些余下的步骤中的每一步都将与其上一步相关。 + +**5. 现在，通过特别指定相对于 ldap 服务的 URI ，添加相应的 LDAP 条目，其中只有 protocol/host/port 这几个域被允许使用。** + + # ldapadd -H ldapi:/// -f ldaprootpasswd.ldif + +上面命令的输出应该与下面的图像相似： + +![LDAP 配置](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Configuration.png) + +*LDAP 配置* + +接着从 `/etc/openldap/schema` 目录导入一个基本的 LDAP 定义： + + # for def in cosine.ldif nis.ldif inetorgperson.ldif; do ldapadd -H ldapi:/// -f /etc/openldap/schema/$def; done + +![LDAP 定义](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Definitions.png) + +*LDAP 定义* + +**6. 让 LDAP 在它的数据库中使用你的域名。** + +以下面的内容创建另一个 LDIF 文件，我们称之为 `ldapdomain.ldif`， 然后酌情替换这个文件中的域名（在域名部分（Domain Component） dc=） 和密码： + + dn: olcDatabase={1}monitor,cn=config + changetype: modify + replace: olcAccess + olcAccess: {0}to * by dn.base="gidNumber=0+uidNumber=0,cn=peercred,cn=external,cn=auth" + read by dn.base="cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" read by * none + + dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config + changetype: modify + replace: olcSuffix + olcSuffix: dc=mydomain,dc=com + + dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config + changetype: modify + replace: olcRootDN + olcRootDN: cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com + + dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config + changetype: modify + add: olcRootPW + olcRootPW: {SSHA}PASSWORD + + dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config + changetype: modify + add: olcAccess + olcAccess: {0}to attrs=userPassword,shadowLastChange by + dn="cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" write by anonymous auth by self write by * none + olcAccess: {1}to dn.base="" by * read + olcAccess: {2}to * by dn="cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" write by * read + +接着使用下面的命令来加载： + + # ldapmodify -H ldapi:/// -f ldapdomain.ldif + +![LDAP 域名配置](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Domain-Configuration.png) + +*LDAP 域名配置* + +**7. 现在，该是添加一些条目到我们的 LDAP 目录的时候了。在下面的文件中，属性和键值由一个冒号`(:)` 所分隔，这个文件我们将命名为 `baseldapdomain.ldif`:** + + dn: dc=mydomain,dc=com + objectClass: top + objectClass: dcObject + objectclass: organization + o: mydomain com + dc: mydomain + + dn: cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com + objectClass: organizationalRole + cn: Manager + description: Directory Manager + + dn: ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com + objectClass: organizationalUnit + ou: People + + dn: ou=Group,dc=mydomain,dc=com + objectClass: organizationalUnit + ou: Group + +添加条目到 LDAP 目录中： + + # ldapadd -x -D cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com -W -f baseldapdomain.ldif + +![添加 LDAP 域名，属性和键值](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Add-LDAP-Domain-Configuration.png) + +*添加 LDAP 域名，属性和键值* + +**8. 创建一个名为 ldapuser 的 LDAP 用户(`adduser ldapuser`)，然后在`ldapgroup.ldif` 中为一个 LDAP 组创建定义。** + + # adduser ldapuser + # vi ldapgroup.ldif + +添加下面的内容： + + dn: cn=Manager,ou=Group,dc=mydomain,dc=com + objectClass: top + objectClass: posixGroup + gidNumber: 1004 + +其中 gidNumber 是 ldapuser 在 `/etc/group` 中的 GID，然后加载这个文件： + + # ldapadd -x -W -D "cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" -f ldapgroup.ldif + +**9. 为用户 ldapuser 添加一个带有定义的 LDIF 文件（`ldapuser.ldif`）：** + + dn: uid=ldapuser,ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com + objectClass: top + objectClass: account + objectClass: posixAccount + objectClass: shadowAccount + cn: ldapuser + uid: ldapuser + uidNumber: 1004 + gidNumber: 1004 + homeDirectory: /home/ldapuser + userPassword: {SSHA}fiN0YqzbDuDI0Fpqq9UudWmjZQY28S3M + loginShell: /bin/bash + gecos: ldapuser + shadowLastChange: 0 + shadowMax: 0 + shadowWarning: 0 + +并加载它： + + # ldapadd -x -D cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com -W -f ldapuser.ldif + +![LDAP 用户配置](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-User-Configuration.png) + +*LDAP 用户配置* + +相似地，你可以删除你刚刚创建的用户条目： + + # ldapdelete -x -W -D cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com "uid=ldapuser,ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com" + +**10. 允许有关 ldap 的通信通过防火墙：** + + # firewall-cmd --add-service=ldap + +**11. 最后，但并非最不重要的是使用 LDAP 开启客户端的认证。** + +为了在最后一步中对我们有所帮助，我们将使用 authconfig 工具（一个配置系统认证资源的界面）。 + +使用下面的命令，在通过 LDAP 服务器认证成功后，假如请求的用户的家目录不存在，则将会被创建： + + # authconfig --enableldap --enableldapauth --ldapserver=rhel7.mydomain.com --ldapbasedn="dc=mydomain,dc=com" --enablemkhomedir --update + +![LDAP 客户端认证](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Client-Configuration.png) + +*LDAP 客户端认证* + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们已经解释了如何利用一个 LDAP 服务器来设置基本的认证。若想对当前这个指南里描述的设置进行更深入的配置，请参考位于 RHEL 系统管理员指南里的 [第 13 章 – LDAP 的配置][3]，并特别注意使用 TLS 来进行安全设定。 + +请随意使用下面的评论框来留下你的提问。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/setup-ldap-server-and-configure-client-authentication/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:https://linux.cn/article-6335-1.html +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/manage-services-using-systemd-and-systemctl-in-linux/ +[3]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/System_Administrators_Guide/ch-Directory_Servers.html diff --git a/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 15--Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM.md b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 15--Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..03ea45452e --- /dev/null +++ b/published/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 15--Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM.md @@ -0,0 +1,193 @@ +RHCSA 系列（十五）： 虚拟化基础和使用 KVM 进行虚拟机管理 +================================================================================ + +假如你在词典中查一下单词 “虚拟化（virtualize）”，你将会发现它的意思是 “创造某些事物的一个虚拟物（而非真实的）”。在计算机行业中，术语虚拟化（virtualization）指的是：在相同的物理（硬件）系统上，同时运行多个操作系统，且这几个系统相互隔离的**可能性**，而那个硬件在虚拟化架构中被称作宿主机（host）。 + +![KVM 虚拟化基础和 KVM 虚拟机管理](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/RHCSA-Part15.png) + +*RHCSA 系列： 虚拟化基础和使用 KVM 进行虚拟机管理 – Part 15* + +通过使用虚拟机监视器（也被称为虚拟机管理程序（hypervisor）），虚拟机（被称为 guest）由底层的硬件来供给虚拟资源（举几个例子来说，如 CPU，RAM，存储介质，网络接口等）。 + +考虑到这一点就可以清楚地看出，虚拟化的主要优点是节约成本（在设备和网络基础设施，及维护工作等方面）和显著地减少容纳所有必要硬件所需的物理空间。 + +由于这个简单的指南不能涵盖所有的虚拟化方法，我鼓励你参考在总结部分中列出的文档，以此对这个话题做更深入的了解。 + +请记住当前文章只是用于在 RHEL 7 中用命令行工具使用 [KVM][1] (Kernel-based Virtual Machine（基于内核的虚拟机）) 学习虚拟化基础知识的一个起点，而并不是对这个话题的深入探讨。 + +### 检查硬件要求并安装软件包 ### + +为了设置虚拟化，你的 CPU 必须能够支持它。你可以使用下面的命令来查看你的系统是否满足这个要求： + + # grep -E 'svm|vmx' /proc/cpuinfo + +在下面的截图中，我们可以看到当前的系统（带有一个 AMD 的微处理器）支持虚拟化，svm 字样的存在暗示了这一点。假如我们有一个 Intel 系列的处理器，我们将会看到上面命令的结果将会出现 vmx 字样。 + +![检查 KVM 支持](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Check-KVM-Support.png) + +*检查 KVM 支持* + +另外，你需要在你宿主机的硬件（BIOS 或 UEFI）中开启虚拟化。 + +现在，安装必要的软件包： + +- qemu-kvm 是一个开源的虚拟机程序，为 KVM 虚拟机监视器提供硬件仿真，而 qemu-img 则提供了一个操纵磁盘镜像的命令行工具。 +- libvirt 包含与操作系统的虚拟化功能交互的工具。 +- libvirt-python 包含一个模块，它允许用 Python 写的应用来使用由 libvirt 提供的接口。 +- libguestfs-tools 包含各式各样的针对虚拟机的系统管理员命令行工具。 +- virt-install 包含针对虚拟机管理的其他命令行工具。 + +命令如下： + + # yum update && yum install qemu-kvm qemu-img libvirt libvirt-python libguestfs-tools virt-install + +一旦安装完成，请确保你启动并开启了 libvirtd 服务： + + # systemctl start libvirtd.service + # systemctl enable libvirtd.service + +默认情况下，每个虚拟机将只能够与放在相同的物理服务器上的虚拟机以及宿主机自身通信。要使得虚拟机能够访问位于局域网或因特网中的其他机器，我们需要像下面这样在我们的宿主机上设置一个桥接接口（比如说 br0）： + +1、 添加下面的一行到我们的 NIC 主配置中（类似 `/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-enp0s3` 这样的文件）： + + BRIDGE=br0 + +2、 使用下面的内容（注意，你可能需要更改 IP 地址，网关地址和 DNS 信息）为 br0 创建一个配置文件（`/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-br0`）： + + + DEVICE=br0 + TYPE=Bridge + BOOTPROTO=static + IPADDR=192.168.0.18 + NETMASK=255.255.255.0 + GATEWAY=192.168.0.1 + NM_CONTROLLED=no + DEFROUTE=yes + PEERDNS=yes + PEERROUTES=yes + IPV4_FAILURE_FATAL=no + IPV6INIT=yes + IPV6_AUTOCONF=yes + IPV6_DEFROUTE=yes + IPV6_PEERDNS=yes + IPV6_PEERROUTES=yes + IPV6_FAILURE_FATAL=no + NAME=br0 + ONBOOT=yes + DNS1=8.8.8.8 + DNS2=8.8.4.4 + +3、 最后在文件`/etc/sysctl.conf` 中设置： + + net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1 + +来开启包转发并加载更改到当前的内核配置中： + + # sysctl -p + +注意，你可能还需要告诉 firewalld 让这类的流量应当被允许通过防火墙。假如你需要这样做，记住你可以参考这个系列的 [使用 firewalld 和 iptables 来控制网络流量][2]。 + +### 创建虚拟机镜像 ### + +默认情况下，虚拟机镜像将会被创建到 `/var/lib/libvirt/images` 中，且强烈建议你不要更改这个设定，除非你真的需要那么做且知道你在做什么，并能自己处理有关 SELinux 的设定（这个话题已经超出了本教程的讨论范畴，但你可以参考这个系列的第 13 部分 [使用 SELinux 来进行强制访问控制][3]，假如你想更新你的知识的话）。 + +这意味着你需要确保你在文件系统中分配了必要的空间来容纳你的虚拟机。 + +下面的命令将使用位于 `/home/gacanepa/ISOs`目录下的 rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso 镜像文件和 br0 这个网桥来创建一个名为 `tecmint-virt01` 的虚拟机，它有一个虚拟 CPU，1 GB（=1024 MB）的 RAM，20 GB 的磁盘空间（由`/var/lib/libvirt/images/tecmint-virt01.img`所代表）： + + + # virt-install \ + --network bridge=br0 + --name tecmint-virt01 \ + --ram=1024 \ + --vcpus=1 \ + --disk path=/var/lib/libvirt/images/tecmint-virt01.img,size=20 \ + --graphics none \ + --cdrom /home/gacanepa/ISOs/rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso + --extra-args="console=tty0 console=ttyS0,115200" + +假如安装文件位于一个 HTTP 服务器上，而不是存储在你磁盘中的镜像中，你必须将上面的 `-cdrom` 替换为 `-location`，并明确地指出在线存储仓库的地址。 + +至于上面的 `–graphics none` 选项，它告诉安装程序只以文本模式执行安装过程。假如你使用一个 GUI 界面和一个 VNC 窗口来访问主虚拟机控制台，则可以省略这个选项。最后，使用 `–extra-args` 参数，我们将传递内核启动参数给安装程序，以此来设置一个串行的虚拟机控制台。 + +现在，所安装的虚拟机应当可以作为一个正常的（真实的）服务来运行了。假如没有，请查看上面列出的步骤。 + +### 管理虚拟机 ### + +作为一个系统管理员，还有一些典型的管理任务需要你在虚拟机上去完成。注：下面所有的命令都需要在你的宿主机上运行： + +**1. 列出所有的虚拟机：** + + # virsh list --all + +你必须留意上面命令输出中的虚拟机 ID（尽管上面的命令还会返回虚拟机的名称和当前的状态），因为你需要它来执行有关某个虚拟机的大多数管理任务。 + +**2. 显示某个虚拟机的信息：** + + # virsh dominfo [VM Id] + +**3. 开启，重启或停止一个虚拟机操作系统：** + + # virsh start | reboot | shutdown [VM Id] + +**4. 假如网络无法连接且在宿主机上没有运行 X 服务器，可以使用下面的命令来访问虚拟机的串行控制台：** + + # virsh console [VM Id] + +**注**：这需要你添加一个串行控制台配置信息到 `/etc/grub.conf` 文件中（参考刚才创建虚拟机时传递给`-extra-args`选项的参数）。 + +**5. 修改分配的内存或虚拟 CPU：** + +首先，关闭虚拟机： + + # virsh shutdown [VM Id] + +为 RAM 编辑虚拟机的配置： + + # virsh edit [VM Id] + +然后更改 + + [内存大小，注意不要加上方括号] + +使用新的设定重启虚拟机： + + # virsh create /etc/libvirt/qemu/tecmint-virt01.xml + +最后，可以使用下面的命令来动态地改变内存的大小： + + # virsh setmem [VM Id] [内存大小，这里没有括号] + +对于 CPU，使用： + + # virsh edit [VM Id] + +然后更改 + + [CPU 数目，这里没有括号] + +至于更深入的命令和细节，请参考 RHEL 5 虚拟化指南（这个指南尽管有些陈旧，但包括了用于管理虚拟机的 virsh 命令的详尽清单）的第 26 章里的表 26.1。 + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们涵盖了在 RHEL 7 中如何使用 KVM 和虚拟化的一些基本概念，这个话题是一个广泛且令人着迷的话题。并且我希望它能成为你在随后阅读官方的 [RHEL 虚拟化入门][4] 和 [RHEL 虚拟化部署和管理指南][5] ，探索更高级的主题时的起点教程，并给你带来帮助。 + +另外，为了分辨或拓展这里解释的某些概念，你还可以参考先前包含在 [KVM 系列][6] 中的文章。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/kvm-virtualization-basics-and-guest-administration/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) +校对：[wxy](https://github.com/wxy) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.linux-kvm.org/page/Main_Page +[2]:https://linux.cn/article-6315-1.html +[3]:https://linux.cn/article-6339-1.html +[4]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/Virtualization_Getting_Started_Guide/index.html +[5]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/Virtualization_Deployment_and_Administration_Guide/index.html +[6]:http://www.tecmint.com/install-and-configure-kvm-in-linux/ diff --git a/sign.md b/sign.md index ea83b53f1f..1c413aba40 100644 --- a/sign.md +++ b/sign.md @@ -1,8 +1,22 @@ + --- -via: +via：来源链接 -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 +作者：[作者名][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) 校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译， +[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 +[a]:作者链接 +[1]:文内链接 +[2]: +[3]: +[4]: +[5]: +[6]: +[7]: +[8]: +[9]: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/share/20150817 Top 5 Torrent Clients For Ubuntu Linux.md b/sources/share/20150817 Top 5 Torrent Clients For Ubuntu Linux.md deleted file mode 100644 index 95ad8d2b5d..0000000000 --- a/sources/share/20150817 Top 5 Torrent Clients For Ubuntu Linux.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,119 +0,0 @@ -Translating by Xuanwo - -Top 5 Torrent Clients For Ubuntu Linux -================================================================================ -![Best Torrent clients for Ubuntu Linux](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/5_Best_Torrent_Ubuntu.png) - -Looking for the **best torrent client in Ubuntu**? Indeed there are a number of torrent clients available for desktop Linux. But which ones are the **best Ubuntu torrent clients** among them? - -I am going to list top 5 torrent clients for Linux, which are lightweight, feature rich and have impressive GUI. Ease of installation and using is also a factor. - -### Best torrent programs for Ubuntu ### - -Since Ubuntu comes by default with Transmission, I am going to exclude it from the list. This doesn’t mean that Transmission doesn’t deserve to be on the list. Transmission is a good to have torrent client for Ubuntu and this is the reason why it is the default Torrent application in several Linux distributions, including Ubuntu. - ----------- - -### Deluge ### - -![Logo of Deluge torrent client for Ubuntu](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Deluge.png) - -[Deluge][1] has been chosen as the best torrent client for Linux by Lifehacker and that speaks itself of the usefulness of Deluge. And it’s not just Lifehacker who is fan of Deluge, check out any forum and you’ll find a number of people admitting that Deluge is their favorite. - -Fast, sleek and intuitive interface makes Deluge a hot favorite among Linux users. - -Deluge is available in Ubuntu repositories and you can install it in Ubuntu Software Center or by using the command below: - - sudo apt-get install deluge - ----------- - -### qBittorrent ### - -![qBittorrent client for Linux](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/qbittorrent_icon.png) - -As the name suggests, [qBittorrent][2] is the Qt version of famous [Bittorrent][3] application. You’ll see an interface similar to Bittorrent client in Windows, if you ever used it. Sort of lightweight and have all the standard features of a torrent program, qBittorrent is also available in default Ubuntu repository. - -It could be installed from Ubuntu Software Center or using the command below: - - sudo apt-get install qbittorrent - ----------- - -### Tixati ### - -![Tixati torrent client logo](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/tixati_icon.png) - -[Tixati][4] is another nice to have torrent client for Ubuntu. It has a default dark theme which might be preferred by many but not me. It has all the standard features that you can seek in a torrent client. - -In addition to that, there are additional feature of data analysis. You can measure and analyze bandwidth and other statistics in nice charts. - -- [Download Tixati][5] - ----------- - -### Vuze ### - -![Vuze Torrent Logo](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/vuze_icon_for_mac_os_x_by_hamzasaleem-d6yx1fp.png) - -[Vuze][6] is favorite torrent application of a number of Linux as well as Windows users. Apart from the standard features, you can search for torrents directly in the application. You can also subscribe to episodic content so that you won’t have to search for new contents as you can see it in your subscription in sidebar. - -It also comes with a video player that can play HD videos with subtitles and all. But I don’t think you would like to use it over the better video players such as VLC. - -Vuze can be installed from Ubuntu Software Center or using the command below: - - sudo apt-get install vuze - ----------- - -### Frostwire ### - -![Logo of Frostwire torrent client](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/frostwire.png) - -[Frostwire][7] is the torrent application you might want to try. It is more than just a simple torrent client. Also available for Android, you can use it to share files over WiFi. - -You can search for torrents from within the application and play them inside the application. In addition to the downloaded files, it can browse your local media and have them organized inside the player. The same is applicable for the Android version. - -An additional feature is that Frostwire also provides access to legal music by indi artists. You can download them and listen to it, for free, for legal. - -- [Download Frostwire][8] - ----------- - -### Honorable mention ### - -On Windows, uTorrent (pronounced mu torrent) is my favorite torrent application. While uTorrent may be available for Linux, I deliberately skipped it from the list because installing and using uTorrent in Linux is neither easy nor does it provide a complete application experience (runs with in web browser). - -You can read about uTorrent installation in Ubuntu [here][9]. - -#### Quick tip: #### - -Most of the time, torrent applications do not start by default. You might want to change this behavior. Read this post to learn [how to manage startup applications in Ubuntu][10]. - -### What’s your favorite? ### - -That was my opinion on the best Torrent clients in Ubuntu. What is your favorite one? Do leave a comment. You can also check the [best download managers for Ubuntu][11] in related posts. And if you use Popcorn Time, check these [Popcorn Time Tips][12]. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://itsfoss.com/best-torrent-ubuntu/ - -作者：[Abhishek][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ -[1]:http://deluge-torrent.org/ -[2]:http://www.qbittorrent.org/ -[3]:http://www.bittorrent.com/ -[4]:http://www.tixati.com/ -[5]:http://www.tixati.com/download/ -[6]:http://www.vuze.com/ -[7]:http://www.frostwire.com/ -[8]:http://www.frostwire.com/downloads -[9]:http://sysads.co.uk/2014/05/install-utorrent-3-3-ubuntu-14-04-13-10/ -[10]:http://itsfoss.com/manage-startup-applications-ubuntu/ -[11]:http://itsfoss.com/4-best-download-managers-for-linux/ -[12]:http://itsfoss.com/popcorn-time-tips/ diff --git a/sources/share/20150824 Great Open Source Collaborative Editing Tools.md b/sources/share/20150824 Great Open Source Collaborative Editing Tools.md index 8f3ab16110..4696862569 100644 --- a/sources/share/20150824 Great Open Source Collaborative Editing Tools.md +++ b/sources/share/20150824 Great Open Source Collaborative Editing Tools.md @@ -1,3 +1,4 @@ +cygmris is translating... Great Open Source Collaborative Editing Tools ================================================================================ In a nutshell, collaborative writing is writing done by more than one person. There are benefits and risks of collaborative working. Some of the benefits include a more integrated / co-ordinated approach, better use of existing resources, and a stronger, united voice. For me, the greatest advantage is one of the most transparent. That's when I need to take colleagues' views. Sending files back and forth between colleagues is inefficient, causes unnecessary delays and leaves people (i.e. me) unhappy with the whole notion of collaboration. With good collaborative software, I can share notes, data and files, and use comments to share thoughts in real-time or asynchronously. Working together on documents, images, video, presentations, and tasks is made less of a chore. @@ -225,4 +226,4 @@ via: http://www.linuxlinks.com/article/20150823085112605/CollaborativeEditing.ht [10]:https://gobby.github.io/ [11]:https://github.com/gobby [12]:https://www.onlyoffice.com/free-edition.aspx -[13]:https://github.com/ONLYOFFICE/DocumentServer \ No newline at end of file +[13]:https://github.com/ONLYOFFICE/DocumentServer diff --git a/sources/share/20150901 5 best open source board games to play online.md b/sources/share/20150901 5 best open source board games to play online.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5df980d1db --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/share/20150901 5 best open source board games to play online.md @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ +Translating by H-mudcup +5 best open source board games to play online +================================================================================ +I have always had a fascination with board games, in part because they are a device of social interaction, they challenge the mind and, most importantly, they are great fun to play. In my misspent youth, myself and a group of friends gathered together to escape the horrors of the classroom, and indulge in a little escapism. The time provided an outlet for tension and rivalry. Board games help teach diplomacy, how to make and break alliances, bring families and friends together, and learn valuable lessons. + +I had a panache for abstract strategy games such as chess and draughts, as well as word games. I can still never resist a game of Escape from Colditz, a strategy card and dice-based board game, or Risk; two timeless multi-player strategy board games. But Catan remains my favourite board game. + +Board games have seen a resurgence in recent years, and Linux has a good range of board games to choose from. There is a credible implementation of Catan called Pioneers. But for my favourite implementations of classic board games to play online, check out the recommendations below. + +---------- + +### TripleA ### + +![TripleA in action](http://www.linuxlinks.com/portal/content/reviews/Games2/Screenshot-TripleA.png) + +TripleA is an open source online turn based strategy game. It allows people to implement and play various strategy board games (ie. Axis & Allies). The TripleA engine has full networking support for online play, support for sounds, XML support for game files, and has its own imaging subsystem that allows for customized user editable maps to be used. TripleA is versatile, scalable and robust. + +TripleA started out as a World War II simulation, but now includes different conflicts, as well as variations and mods of popular games and maps. TripleA comes with multiple games and over 100 more games can be downloaded from the user community. + +Features include: + +- Good interface and attractive graphics +- Optional scenarios +- Multiplayer games +- TripleA comes with the following supported games that uses its game engine (just to name a few): + - Axis & Allies : Classic edition (2nd, 3rd with options enabled) + - Axis & Allies : Revised Edition + - Pact of Steel A&A Variant + - Big World 1942 A&A Variant + - Four if by Sea + - Battle Ship Row + - Capture The Flag + - Minimap +- Hot-seat +- Play By EMail mode allows persons to play a game via EMail without having to be connected to each other online + - More time to think out moves + - Only need to come online to send your turn to the next player + - Dice rolls are done by a dedicated dice server that is independent of TripleA + - All dice rolls are PGP Verified and email to every player + - Every move and every dice roll is logged and saved in TripleA's History Window + - An online game can be later continued under PBEM mode + - Hard for others to cheat +- Hosted online lobby +- Utilities for editing maps +- Website: [triplea.sourceforge.net][1] +- Developer: Sean Bridges (original developer), Mark Christopher Duncan +- License: GNU GPL v2 +- Version Number: 1.8.0.7 + +---------- + +### Domination ### + +![Domination in action](http://www.linuxlinks.com/portal/content/reviews/Games2/Screenshot-Domination.png) + +Domination is an open source game that shares common themes with the hugely popular Risk board game. It has many game options and includes many maps. + +In the classic “World Domination” game of military strategy, you are battling to conquer the world. To win, you must launch daring attacks, defend yourself to all fronts, and sweep across vast continents with boldness and cunning. But remember, the dangers, as well as the rewards, are high. Just when the world is within your grasp, your opponent might strike and take it all away! + +Features include: + +- Simple to learn + - Domination - you must occupy all countries on the map, and thereby eliminate all opponents. These can be long, drawn out games + - Capital - each player has a country they have selected as a Capital. To win the game, you must occupy all Capitals + - Mission - each player draws a random mission. The first to complete their mission wins. Missions may include the elimination of a certain colour, occupation of a particular continent, or a mix of both +- Map editor +- Simple map format +- Multiplayer network play +- Single player +- Hotseat +- 5 user interfaces +- Game types: +- Play online +- Website: [domination.sourceforge.net][2] +- Developer: Yura Mamyrin, Christian Weiske, Mike Chaten, and many others +- License: GNU GPL v3 +- Version Number: 1.1.1.5 + +---------- + +### PyChess ### + +![Micro-Max in action](http://www.linuxlinks.com/portal/content/reviews/Games/Screenshot-Pychess.jpg) + +PyChess is a Gnome inspired chess client written in Python. + +The goal of PyChess, is to provide a fully featured, nice looking, easy to use chess client for the gnome-desktop. + +The client should be usable both to those totally new to chess, those who want to play an occasional game, and those who wants to use the computer to further enhance their play. + +Features include: + +- Attractive interface +- Chess Engine Communication Protocol (CECP) and Univeral Chess Interface (UCI) Engine support +- Free online play on the Free Internet Chess Server (FICS) +- Read and writes PGN, EPD and FEN chess file formats +- Built-in Python based engine +- Undo and pause functions +- Board and piece animation +- Drag and drop +- Tabbed interface +- Hints and spyarrows +- Opening book sidepanel using sqlite +- Score plot sidepanel +- "Enter game" in pgn dialog +- Optional sounds +- Legal move highlighting +- Internationalised or figure pieces in notation +- Website: [www.pychess.org][3] +- Developer: Thomas Dybdahl Ahle +- License: GNU GPL v2 +- Version Number: 0.12 Anderssen rc4 + +---------- + +### Scrabble ### + +![Scrabble in action](http://www.linuxlinks.com/portal/content/reviews/Games2/Screenshot-Scrabble3D.png) + +Scrabble3D is a highly customizable Scrabble game that not only supports Classic Scrabble and Superscrabble but also 3D games and own boards. You can play local against the computer or connect to a game server to find other players. + +Scrabble is a board game with the goal to place letters crossword like. Up to four players take part and get a limited amount of letters (usually 7 or 8). Consecutively, each player tries to compose his letters to one or more word combining with the placed words on the game array. The value of the move depends on the letters (rare letter get more points) and bonus fields which multiply the value of a letter or the whole word. The player with most points win. + +This idea is extended with Scrabble3D to the third dimension. Of course, a classic game with 15x15 fields or Superscrabble with 21x21 fields can be played and you may configure any field setting by yourself. The game can be played by the provided freeware program against Computer, other local players or via internet. Last but not least it's possible to connect to a game server to find other players and to obtain a rating. Most options are configurable, including the number and valuation of letters, the used dictionary, the language of dialogs and certainly colors, fonts etc. + +Features include: + +- Configurable board, letterset and design +- Board in OpenGL graphics with user-definable wavefront model +- Game against computer with support of multithreading +- Post-hoc game analysis with calculation of best move by computer +- Match with other players connected on a game server +- NSA rating and highscore at game server +- Time limit of games +- Localization; use of non-standard digraphs like CH, RR, LL and right to left reading +- Multilanguage help / wiki +- Network games are buffered and asynchronous games are possible +- Running games can be kibitzed +- International rules including italian "Cambio Secco" +- Challenge mode, What-if-variant, CLABBERS, etc +- Website: [sourceforge.net/projects/scrabble][4] +- Developer: Heiko Tietze +- License: GNU GPL v3 +- Version Number: 3.1.3 + +---------- + +### Backgammon ### + +![Backgammon in action](http://www.linuxlinks.com/portal/content/reviews/Games/Screenshot-gnubg.png) + +GNU Backgammon (gnubg) is a strong backgammon program (world-class with a bearoff database installed) usable either as an engine by other programs or as a standalone backgammon game. It is able to play and analyze both money games and tournament matches, evaluate and roll out positions, and more. + +In addition to supporting simple play, it also has extensive analysis features, a tutor mode, adjustable difficulty, and support for exporting annotated games. + +It currently plays at about the level of a championship flight tournament player and is gradually improving. + +gnubg can be played on numerous on-line backgammon servers, such as the First Internet Backgammon Server (FIBS). + +Features include: + +- A command line interface (with full command editing features if GNU readline is available) that lets you play matches and sessions against GNU Backgammon with a rough ASCII representation of the board on text terminals +- Support for a GTK+ interface with a graphical board window. Both 2D and 3D graphics are available +- Tournament match and money session cube handling and cubeful play +- Support for both 1-sided and 2-sided bearoff databases: 1-sided bearoff database for 15 checkers on the first 6 points and optional 2-sided database kept in memory. Optional larger 1-sided and 2-sided databases stored on disk +- Automated rollouts of positions, with lookahead and race variance reduction where appropriate. Rollouts may be extended +- Functions to generate legal moves and evaluate positions at varying search depths +- Neural net functions for giving cubeless evaluations of all other contact and race positions +- Automatic and manual annotation (analysis and commentary) of games and matches +- Record keeping of statistics of players in games and matches (both native inside GNU Backgammon and externally using relational databases and Python) +- Loading and saving analyzed games and matches as .sgf files (Smart Game Format) +- Exporting positions, games and matches to: (.eps) Encapsulated Postscript, (.gam) Jellyfish Game, (.html) HTML, (.mat) Jellyfish Match, (.pdf) PDF, (.png) Portable Network Graphics, (.pos) Jellyfish Position, (.ps) PostScript, (.sgf) Gnu Backgammon File, (.tex) LaTeX, (.txt) Plain Text, (.txt) Snowie Text +- Import of matches and positions from a number of file formats: (.bkg) Hans Berliner's BKG Format, (.gam) GammonEmpire Game, (.gam) PartyGammon Game, (.mat) Jellyfish Match, (.pos) Jellyfish Position, (.sgf) Gnu Backgammon File, (.sgg) GamesGrid Save Game, (.tmg) TrueMoneyGames, (.txt) Snowie Text +- Python Scripting +- Native language support; 10 languages complete or in progress +- Website: [www.gnubg.org][5] +- Developer: Joseph Heled, Oystein Johansen, Jonathan Kinsey, David Montgomery, Jim Segrave, Joern Thyssen, Gary Wong and contributors +- License: GPL v2 +- Version Number: 1.05.000 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.linuxlinks.com/article/20150830011533893/BoardGames.html + +作者：Frazer Kline +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://triplea.sourceforge.net/ +[2]:http://domination.sourceforge.net/ +[3]:http://www.pychess.org/ +[4]:http://sourceforge.net/projects/scrabble/ +[5]:http://www.gnubg.org/ diff --git a/sources/share/20151007 Open Source Media Player MPlayer 1.2 Released.md b/sources/share/20151007 Open Source Media Player MPlayer 1.2 Released.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..52a6887786 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/share/20151007 Open Source Media Player MPlayer 1.2 Released.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +alim0x translating + +Open Source Media Player MPlayer 1.2 Released +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/MPlayer-1.2.jpg) + +Almost three years after [MPlaayer][1] 1.1, the new version of MPlayer has been released last week. MPlayer 1.2 brings up support for many new codecs in this release. + +MPlayer is a cross-platform, open source media player. Its name is an abbreviation of “Movie Player”. MPlayer has been one of the oldest video players for Linux and during last 15 years, it has inspired a number of other media players. Some of the famous media players based on MPlayer are: + +- [MPV][2] +- SMPlayer +- KPlayer +- GNOME MPlayer +- Deepin Player + +#### What’s new in MPlayer 1.2? #### + +- Compatibility with FFmpeg 2.8 +- VDPAU hardware acceleration for H.265/HEVC +- A number of new codecs supported via FFmpeg +- Improvements in TV and DVB support +- GUI improvements +- external dependency on libdvdcss/libdvdnav packages + +#### Install MPlayer 1.2 in Linux #### + +Most Linux distributions are still having MPlayer 1.1. If you want to use the new MPlayer 1.2, you’ll have to compile it from the source code which could be tricky at times for beginners. + +I have used Ubuntu 15.04 for the installation of MPlayer 1.2. Installation instructions will remain the same for all Linux distributions except the part where you need to install yasm. + +Open a terminal and use the following commands: + + wget http://www.mplayerhq.hu/MPlayer/releases/MPlayer-1.2.tar.xz + + tar xvf MPlayer-1.1.1.tar.xz + + cd MPlayer-1.2 + + sudo apt-get install yasm + + ./configure + +When you run make, it will throw a number of things on the terminal screen and takes some time to build it. Have patience. + + make + + sudo make install + +If you feel uncomfortable using the source code, I advise you to either wait forMPlayer 1.2 to land in the repositories of your Linux distribution or use an alternate like MPV. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/mplayer-1-2-released/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:https://www.mplayerhq.hu/ +[2]:http://mpv.io/ diff --git a/sources/talk/20141223 Defending the Free Linux World.md b/sources/talk/20141223 Defending the Free Linux World.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0a552e640d..0000000000 --- a/sources/talk/20141223 Defending the Free Linux World.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,127 +0,0 @@ -Translating by H-mudcup - -Defending the Free Linux World -================================================================================ -![](http://www.linuxinsider.com/ai/908455/open-invention-network.jpg) - -**Co-opetition is a part of open source. The Open Invention Network model allows companies to decide where they will compete and where they will collaborate, explained OIN CEO Keith Bergelt. As open source evolved, "we had to create channels for collaboration. Otherwise, we would have hundreds of entities spending billions of dollars on the same technology."** - -The [Open Invention Network][1], or OIN, is waging a global campaign to keep Linux out of harm's way in patent litigation. Its efforts have resulted in more than 1,000 companies joining forces to become the largest defense patent management organization in history. - -The Open Invention Network was created in 2005 as a white hat organization to protect Linux from license assaults. It has considerable financial backing from original board members that include Google, IBM, NEC, Novell, Philips, [Red Hat][2] and Sony. Organizations worldwide have joined the OIN community by signing the free OIN license. - -Organizers founded the Open Invention Network as a bold endeavor to leverage intellectual property to protect Linux. Its business model was difficult to comprehend. It asked its members to take a royalty-free license and forever forgo the chance to sue other members over their Linux-oriented intellectual property. - -However, the surge in Linux adoptions since then -- think server and cloud platforms -- has made protecting Linux intellectual property a critically necessary strategy. - -Over the past year or so, there has been a shift in the Linux landscape. OIN is doing a lot less talking to people about what the organization is and a lot less explaining why Linux needs protection. There is now a global awareness of the centrality of Linux, according to Keith Bergelt, CEO of OIN. - -"We have seen a culture shift to recognizing how OIN benefits collaboration," he told LinuxInsider. - -### How It Works ### - -The Open Invention Network uses patents to create a collaborative environment. This approach helps ensure the continuation of innovation that has benefited software vendors, customers, emerging markets and investors. - -Patents owned by Open Invention Network are available royalty-free to any company, institution or individual. All that is required to qualify is the signer's agreement not to assert its patents against the Linux system. - -OIN ensures the openness of the Linux source code. This allows programmers, equipment vendors, independent software vendors and institutions to invest in and use Linux without excessive worry about intellectual property issues. This makes it more economical for companies to repackage, embed and use Linux. - -"With the diffusion of copyright licenses, the need for OIN licenses becomes more acute. People are now looking for a simpler or more utilitarian solution," said Bergelt. - -OIN legal defenses are free of charge to members. Members commit to not initiating patent litigation against the software in OIN's list. They also agree to offer their own patents in defense of that software. Ultimately, these commitments result in access to hundreds of thousands of patents cross-licensed by the network, Bergelt explained. - -### Closing the Legal Loopholes ### - -"What OIN is doing is very essential. It offers another layer of IP protection, said Greg R. Vetter, associate professor of law at the [University of Houston Law Center][3]. - -Version 2 of the GPL license is thought by some to provide an implied patent license, but lawyers always feel better with an explicit license, he told LinuxInsider. - -What OIN provides is something that bridges that gap. It also provides explicit coverage of the Linux kernel. An explicit patent license is not necessarily part of the GPLv2, but it was added in GPLv3, according to Vetter. - -Take the case of a code writer who produces 10,000 lines of code under GPLv3, for example. Over time, other code writers contribute many more lines of code, which adds to the IP. The software patent license provisions in GPLv3 would protect the use of the entire code base under all of the participating contributors' patents, Vetter said. - -### Not Quite the Same ### - -Patents and licenses are overlapping legal constructs. Figuring out how the two entities work with open source software can be like traversing a minefield. - -"Licenses are legal constructs granting additional rights based on, typically, patent and copyright laws. Licenses are thought to give a permission to do something that might otherwise be infringement of someone else's IP rights," Vetter said. - -Many free and open source licenses (such as the Mozilla Public License, the GNU GPLv3, and the Apache Software License) incorporate some form of reciprocal patent rights clearance. Older licenses like BSD and MIT do not mention patents, Vetter pointed out. - -A software license gives someone else certain rights to use the code the programmer created. Copyright to establish ownership is automatic, as soon as someone writes or draws something original. However, copyright covers only that particular expression and derivative works. It does not cover code functionality or ideas for use. - -Patents cover functionality. Patent rights also can be licensed. A copyright may not protect how someone independently developed implementation of another's code, but a patent fills this niche, Vetter explained. - -### Looking for Safe Passage ### - -The mixing of license and patent legalities can appear threatening to open source developers. For some, even the GPL qualifies as threatening, according to William Hurley, cofounder of [Chaotic Moon Studios][4] and [IEEE][5] Computer Society member. - -"Way back in the day, open source was a different world. Driven by mutual respect and a view of code as art, not property, things were far more open than they are today. I believe that many efforts set upon with the best of intentions almost always end up bearing unintended consequences," Hurley told LinuxInsider. - -Surpassing the 1,000-member mark might carry a mixed message about the significance of intellectual property right protection, he suggested. It might just continue to muddy the already murky waters of today's open source ecosystem. - -"At the end of the day, this shows some of the common misconceptions around intellectual property. Having thousands of developers does not decrease risk -- it increases it. The more developers licensing the patents, the more valuable they appear to be," Hurley said. "The more valuable they appear to be, the more likely someone with similar patents or other intellectual property will try to take advantage and extract value for their own financial gain." - -### Sharing While Competing ### - -Co-opetition is a part of open source. The OIN model allows companies to decide where they will compete and where they will collaborate, explained Bergelt. - -"Many of the changes in the evolution of open source in terms of process have moved us into a different direction. We had to create channels for collaboration. Otherwise, we would have hundreds of entities spending billions of dollars on the same technology," he said. - -A glaring example of this is the early evolution of the cellphone industry. Multiple standards were put forward by multiple companies. There was no sharing and no collaboration, noted Bergelt. - -"That damaged our ability to access technology by seven to 10 years in the U.S. Our experience with devices was far behind what everybody else in the world had. We were complacent with GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) while we were waiting for CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)," he said. - -### Changing Landscape ### - -OIN experienced a growth surge of 400 new licensees in the last year. That is indicative of a new trend involving open source. - -"The marketplace reached a critical mass where finally people within organizations recognized the need to explicitly collaborate and to compete. The result is doing both at the same time. This can be messy and taxing," Bergelt said. - -However, it is a sustainable transformation driven by a cultural shift in how people think about collaboration and competition. It is also a shift in how people are embracing open source -- and Linux in particular -- as the lead project in the open source community, he explained. - -One indication is that most significant new projects are not being developed under the GPLv3 license. - -### Two Better Than One ### - -"The GPL is incredibly important, but the reality is there are a number of licensing models being used. The relative addressability of patent issues is generally far lower in Eclipse and Apache and Berkeley licenses that it is in GPLv3," said Bergelt. - -GPLv3 is a natural complement for addressing patent issues -- but the GPL is not sufficient on its own to address the issues of potential conflicts around the use of patents. So OIN is designed as a complement to copyright licenses, he added. - -However, the overlap of patent and license may not do much good. In the end, patents are for offensive purposes -- not defensive -- in almost every case, Bergelt suggested. - -"If you are not prepared to take legal action against others, then a patent may not be the best form of legal protection for your intellectual properties," he said. "We now live in a world where the misconceptions around software, both open and proprietary, combined with an ill-conceived and outdated patent system, leave us floundering as an industry and stifling innovation on a daily basis," he said. - -### Court of Last Resort ### - -It would be nice to think the presence of OIN has dampened a flood of litigation, Bergelt said, or at the very least, that OIN's presence is neutralizing specific threats. - -"We are getting people to lay down their arms, so to say. At the same time, we are creating a new cultural norm. Once you buy into patent nonaggression in this model, the correlative effect is to encourage collaboration," he observed. - -If you are committed to collaboration, you tend not to rush to litigation as a first response. Instead, you think in terms of how can we enable you to use what we have and make some money out of it while we use what you have, Bergelt explained. - -"OIN is a multilateral solution. It encourages signers to create bilateral agreements," he said. "That makes litigation the last course of action. That is where it should be." - -### Bottom Line ### - -OIN is working to prevent Linux patent challenges, Bergelt is convinced. There has not been litigation in this space involving Linux. - -The only thing that comes close are the mobile wars with Microsoft, which focus on elements high in the stack. Those legal challenges may be designed to raise the cost of ownership involving the use of Linux products, Bergelt noted. - -Still, "these are not Linux-related law suits," he said. "They do not focus on what is core to Linux. They focus on what is in the Linux system." - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.linuxinsider.com/story/Defending-the-Free-Linux-World-81512.html - -作者：Jack M. Germain -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[1]:http://www.openinventionnetwork.com/ -[2]:http://www.redhat.com/ -[3]:http://www.law.uh.edu/ -[4]:http://www.chaoticmoon.com/ -[5]:http://www.ieee.org/ diff --git a/sources/talk/20150709 Interviews--Linus Torvalds Answers Your Question.md b/sources/talk/20150709 Interviews--Linus Torvalds Answers Your Question.md index f1420fd0e4..bb04ddf0c8 100644 --- a/sources/talk/20150709 Interviews--Linus Torvalds Answers Your Question.md +++ b/sources/talk/20150709 Interviews--Linus Torvalds Answers Your Question.md @@ -1,4 +1,3 @@ -zpl1025 Interviews: Linus Torvalds Answers Your Question ================================================================================ Last Thursday you had a chance to [ask Linus Torvalds][1] about programming, hardware, and all things Linux. You can read his answers to those questions below. If you'd like to see what he had to say the last time we sat down with him, [you can do so here][2]. diff --git a/sources/talk/20150716 Interview--Larry Wall.md b/sources/talk/20150716 Interview--Larry Wall.md index 1362281517..f3fea9c596 100644 --- a/sources/talk/20150716 Interview--Larry Wall.md +++ b/sources/talk/20150716 Interview--Larry Wall.md @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -martin +translating... Interview: Larry Wall ================================================================================ diff --git a/sources/talk/20150818 Debian GNU or Linux Birthday-- A 22 Years of Journey and Still Counting.md b/sources/talk/20150818 Debian GNU or Linux Birthday-- A 22 Years of Journey and Still Counting.md deleted file mode 100644 index f74384b616..0000000000 --- a/sources/talk/20150818 Debian GNU or Linux Birthday-- A 22 Years of Journey and Still Counting.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,109 +0,0 @@ -Debian GNU/Linux Birthday : A 22 Years of Journey and Still Counting… -================================================================================ -On 16th August 2015, the Debian project has celebrated its 22nd anniversary, making it one of the oldest popular distribution in open source world. Debian project was conceived and founded in the year 1993 by Ian Murdock. By that time Slackware had already made a remarkable presence as one of the earliest Linux Distribution. - -![Happy 22nd Birthday to Debian](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Debian-22nd-Birthday.png) - -Happy 22nd Birthday to Debian Linux - -Ian Ashley Murdock, an American Software Engineer by profession, conceived the idea of Debian project, when he was a student of Purdue University. He named the project Debian after the name of his then-girlfriend Debra Lynn (Deb) and his name. He later married her and then got divorced in January 2008. - -![Ian Murdock](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Ian-Murdock.jpeg) - -Debian Creator: Ian Murdock - -Ian is currently serving as Vice President of Platform and Development Community at ExactTarget. - -Debian (as Slackware) was the result of unavailability of up-to mark Linux Distribution, that time. Ian in an interview said – “Providing the first class Product without profit would be the sole aim of Debian Project. Even Linux was not reliable and up-to mark that time. I Remember…. Moving files between file-system and dealing with voluminous file would often result in Kernel Panic. However the project Linux was promising. The availability of Source Code freely and the potential it seemed was qualitative.” - -I remember … like everyone else I wanted to solve problem, run something like UNIX at home, but it was not possible…neither financially nor legally, in the other sense . Then I come to know about GNU kernel Development and its non-association with any kind of legal issues, he added. He was sponsored by Free Software Foundation (FSF) in the early days when he was working on Debian, it also helped Debian to take a giant step though Ian needed to finish his degree and hence quited FSF roughly after one year of sponsorship. - -### Debian Development History ### - -- **Debian 0.01 – 0.09** : Released between August 1993 – December 1993. -- **Debian 0.91 ** – Released in January 1994 with primitive package system, No dependencies. -- **Debian 0.93 rc5** : March 1995. It is the first modern release of Debian, dpkg was used to install and maintain packages after base system installation. -- **Debian 0.93 rc6**: Released in November 1995. It was last a.out release, deselect made an appearance for the first time – 60 developers were maintaining packages, then at that time. -- **Debian 1.1**: Released in June 1996. Code name – Buzz, Packages count – 474, Package Manager dpkg, Kernel 2.0, ELF. -- **Debian 1.2**: Released in December 1996. Code name – Rex, Packages count – 848, Developers Count – 120. -- **Debian 1.3**: Released in July 1997. Code name – Bo, package count 974, Developers count – 200. -- **Debian 2.0**: Released in July 1998. Code name: Hamm, Support for architecture – Intel i386 and Motorola 68000 series, Number of Packages: 1500+, Number of Developers: 400+, glibc included. -- **Debian 2.1**: Released on March 09, 1999. Code name – slink, support architecture Alpha and Sparc, apt came in picture, Number of package – 2250. -- **Debian 2.2**: Released on August 15, 2000. Code name – Potato, Supported architecture – Intel i386, Motorola 68000 series, Alpha, SUN Sparc, PowerPC and ARM architecture. Number of packages: 3900+ (binary) and 2600+ (Source), Number of Developers – 450. There were a group of people studied and came with an article called Counting potatoes, which shows – How a free software effort could lead to a modern operating system despite all the issues around it. -- **Debian 3.0** : Released on July 19th, 2002. Code name – woody, Architecture supported increased– HP, PA_RISC, IA-64, MIPS and IBM, First release in DVD, Package Count – 8500+, Developers Count – 900+, Cryptography. -- **Debian 3.1**: Release on June 6th, 2005. Code name – sarge, Architecture support – same as woody + AMD64 – Unofficial Port released, Kernel – 2.4 qnd 2.6 series, Number of Packages: 15000+, Number of Developers : 1500+, packages like – OpenOffice Suite, Firefox Browser, Thunderbird, Gnome 2.8, kernel 3.3 Advanced Installation Support: RAID, XFS, LVM, Modular Installer. -- **Debian 4.0**: Released on April 8th, 2007. Code name – etch, architecture support – same as sarge, included AMD64. Number of packages: 18,200+ Developers count : 1030+, Graphical Installer. -- **Debian 5.0**: Released on February 14th, 2009. Code name – lenny, Architecture Support – Same as before + ARM. Number of packages: 23000+, Developers Count: 1010+. -- **Debian 6.0** : Released on July 29th, 2009. Code name – squeeze, Package included : kernel 2.6.32, Gnome 2.3. Xorg 7.5, DKMS included, Dependency-based. Architecture : Same as pervious + kfreebsd-i386 and kfreebsd-amd64, Dependency based booting. -- **Debian 7.0**: Released on may 4, 2013. Code name: wheezy, Support for Multiarch, Tools for private cloud, Improved Installer, Third party repo need removed, full featured multimedia-codec, Kernel 3.2, Xen Hypervisor 4.1.4 Package Count: 37400+. -- **Debian 8.0**: Released on May 25, 2015 and Code name: Jessie, Systemd as the default init system, powered by Kernel 3.16, fast booting, cgroups for services, possibility of isolating part of the services, 43000+ packages. Sysvinit init system available in Jessie. - -**Note**: Linux Kernel initial release was on October 05, 1991 and Debian initial release was on September 15, 1993. So, Debian is there for 22 Years running Linux Kernel which is there for 24 years. - -### Debian Facts ### - -Year 1994 was spent on organizing and managing Debian project so that it would be easy for others to contribute. Hence no release for users were made this year however there were certain internal release. - -Debian 1.0 was never released. A CDROM manufacturer company by mistakenly labelled an unreleased version as Debian 1.0. Hence to avoid confusion Debian 1.0 was released as Debian 1.1 and since then only the concept of official CDROM images came into existence. - -Each release of Debian is a character of Toy Story. - -Debian remains available in old stable, stable, testing and experimental, all the time. - -The Debian Project continues to work on the unstable distribution (codenamed sid, after the evil kid from the Toy Story). Sid is the permanent name for the unstable distribution and is remains ‘Still In Development’. The testing release is intended to become the next stable release and is currently codenamed jessie. - -Debian official distribution includes only Free and OpenSource Software and nothing else. However the availability of contrib and Non-free Packages makes it possible to install those packages which are free but their dependencies are not licensed free (contrib) and Packages licensed under non-free softwares. - -Debian is the mother of a lot of Linux distribution. Some of these Includes: - -- Damn Small Linux -- KNOPPIX -- Linux Advanced -- MEPIS -- Ubuntu -- 64studio (No more active) -- LMDE - -Debian is the world’s largest non commercial Linux Distribution. It is written in C (32.1%) programming language and rest in 70 other languages. - -![Debian Contribution](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Debian-Programming.png) - -Debian Contribution - -Image Source: [Xmodulo][1] - -Debian project contains 68.5 million actual loc (lines of code) + 4.5 million lines of comments and white spaces. - -International Space station dropped Windows & Red Hat for adopting Debian – These astronauts are using one release back – now “squeeze” for stability and strength from community. - -Thank God! Who would have heard the scream from space on Windows Metro Screen :P - -#### The Black Wednesday #### - -On November 20th, 2002 the University of Twente Network Operation Center (NOC) caught fire. The fire department gave up protecting the server area. NOC hosted satie.debian.org which included Security, non-US archive, New Maintainer, quality assurance, databases – Everything was turned to ashes. Later these services were re-built by debian. - -#### The Future Distro #### - -Next in the list is Debian 9, code name – Stretch, what it will have is yet to be revealed. The best is yet to come, Just Wait for it! - -A lot of distribution made an appearance in Linux Distro genre and then disappeared. In most cases managing as it gets bigger was a concern. But certainly this is not the case with Debian. It has hundreds of thousands of developer and maintainer all across the globe. It is a one Distro which was there from the initial days of Linux. - -The contribution of Debian in Linux ecosystem can’t be measured in words. If there had been no Debian, Linux would not have been so rich and user-friendly. Debian is among one of the disto which is considered highly reliable, secure and stable and a perfect choice for Web Servers. - -That’s the beginning of Debian. It came a long way and still going. The Future is Here! The world is here! If you have not used Debian till now, What are you Waiting for. Just Download Your Image and get started, we will be here if you get into trouble. - -- [Debian Homepage][2] - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/happy-birthday-to-debian-gnu-linux/ - -作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ -[1]:http://xmodulo.com/2013/08/interesting-facts-about-debian-linux.html -[2]:https://www.debian.org/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/20150821 Linux 4.3 Kernel To Add The MOST Driver Subsystem.md b/sources/talk/20150821 Linux 4.3 Kernel To Add The MOST Driver Subsystem.md index 5b4ad2251f..3e225ac866 100644 --- a/sources/talk/20150821 Linux 4.3 Kernel To Add The MOST Driver Subsystem.md +++ b/sources/talk/20150821 Linux 4.3 Kernel To Add The MOST Driver Subsystem.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +- translating by Ezio + Linux 4.3 Kernel To Add The MOST Driver Subsystem ================================================================================ While the [Linux 4.2][1] kernel hasn't been officially released yet, Greg Kroah-Hartman sent in early his pull requests for the various subsystems he maintains for the Linux 4.3 merge window. diff --git a/sources/talk/20150823 How learning data structures and algorithms make you a better developer.md b/sources/talk/20150823 How learning data structures and algorithms make you a better developer.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7152efa1ed..0000000000 --- a/sources/talk/20150823 How learning data structures and algorithms make you a better developer.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,126 +0,0 @@ -How learning data structures and algorithms make you a better developer -================================================================================ - -> "I'm a huge proponent of designing your code around the data, rather than the other way around, and I think it's one of the reasons git has been fairly successful […] I will, in fact, claim that the difference between a bad programmer and a good one is whether he considers his code or his data structures more important." --- Linus Torvalds - ---- - -> "Smart data structures and dumb code works a lot better than the other way around." --- Eric S. Raymond, The Cathedral and The Bazaar - -Learning about data structures and algorithms makes you a stonking good programmer. - -**Data structures and algorithms are patterns for solving problems.** The more of them you have in your utility belt, the greater variety of problems you'll be able to solve. You'll also be able to come up with more elegant solutions to new problems than you would otherwise be able to. - -You'll understand, ***in depth***, how your computer gets things done. This informs any technical decisions you make, regardless of whether or not you're using a given algorithm directly. Everything from memory allocation in the depths of your operating system, to the inner workings of your RDBMS to how your networking stack manages to send data from one corner of Earth to another. All computers rely on fundamental data structures and algorithms, so understanding them better makes you understand the computer better. - -Cultivate a broad and deep knowledge of algorithms and you'll have stock solutions to large classes of problems. Problem spaces that you had difficulty modelling before often slot neatly into well-worn data structures that elegantly handle the known use-cases. Dive deep into the implementation of even the most basic data structures and you'll start seeing applications for them in your day-to-day programming tasks. - -You'll also be able to come up with novel solutions to the somewhat fruitier problems you're faced with. Data structures and algorithms have the habit of proving themselves useful in situations that they weren't originally intended for, and the only way you'll discover these on your own is by having a deep and intuitive knowledge of at least the basics. - -But enough with the theory, have a look at some examples - -###Figuring out the fastest way to get somewhere### -Let's say we're creating software to figure out the shortest distance from one international airport to another. Assume we're constrained to following routes: - -![](http://www.happybearsoftware.com/assets/posts/how-learning-data-structures-and-algorithms-makes-you-a-better-developer/airport-graph-d2e32b3344b708383e405d67a80c29ea.svg) - -graph of destinations and the distances between them, how can we find the shortest distance say, from Helsinki to London? **Dijkstra's algorithm** is the algorithm that will definitely get us the right answer in the shortest time. - -In all likelihood, if you ever came across this problem and knew that Dijkstra's algorithm was the solution, you'd probably never have to implement it from scratch. Just ***knowing*** about it would point you to a library implementation that solves the problem for you. - -If you did dive deep into the implementation, you'd be working through one of the most important graph algorithms we know of. You'd know that in practice it's a little resource intensive so an extension called A* is often used in it's place. It gets used everywhere from robot guidance to routing TCP packets to GPS pathfinding. - -###Figuring out the order to do things in### -Let's say you're trying to model courses on a new Massive Open Online Courses platform (like Udemy or Khan Academy). Some of the courses depend on each other. For example, a user has to have taken Calculus before she's eligible for the course on Newtonian Mechanics. Courses can have multiple dependencies. Here's are some examples of what that might look like written out in YAML: - - # Mapping from course name to requirements - # - # If you're a physcist or a mathematicisn and you're reading this, sincere - # apologies for the completely made-up dependency tree :) - courses: - arithmetic: [] - algebra: [arithmetic] - trigonometry: [algebra] - calculus: [algebra, trigonometry] - geometry: [algebra] - mechanics: [calculus, trigonometry] - atomic_physics: [mechanics, calculus] - electromagnetism: [calculus, atomic_physics] - radioactivity: [algebra, atomic_physics] - astrophysics: [radioactivity, calculus] - quantumn_mechanics: [atomic_physics, radioactivity, calculus] - -Given those dependencies, as a user, I want to be able to pick any course and have the system give me an ordered list of courses that I would have to take to be eligible. So if I picked `calculus`, I'd want the system to return the list: - - arithmetic -> algebra -> trigonometry -> calculus - -Two important constraints on this that may not be self-evident: - - - At every stage in the course list, the dependencies of the next course must be met. - - We don't want any duplicate courses in the list. - -This is an example of resolving dependencies and the algorithm we're looking for to solve this problem is called topological sort (tsort). Tsort works on a dependency graph like we've outlined in the YAML above. Here's what that would look like in a graph (where each arrow means `requires`): - -![](http://www.happybearsoftware.com/assets/posts/how-learning-data-structures-and-algorithms-makes-you-a-better-developer/course-graph-2f60f42bb0dc95319954ce34c02705a2.svg) - -topological sort does is take a graph like the one above and find an ordering in which all the dependencies are met at each stage. So if we took a sub-graph that only contained `radioactivity` and it's dependencies, then ran tsort on it, we might get the following ordering: - - arithmetic - algebra - trigonometry - calculus - mechanics - atomic_physics - radioactivity - -This meets the requirements set out by the use case we described above. A user just has to pick `radioactivity` and they'll get an ordered list of all the courses they have to work through before they're allowed to. - -We don't even need to go into the details of how topological sort works before we put it to good use. In all likelihood, your programming language of choice probably has an implementation of it in the standard library. In the worst case scenario, your Unix probably has the `tsort` utility installed by default, run man `tsort` and have a play with it. - -###Other places tsort get's used### - - - **Tools like** `make` allow you to declare task dependencies. Topological sort is used under the hood to figure out what order the tasks should be executed in. - - **Any programming language that has a `require` directive**, indicating that the current file requires the code in a different file to be run first. Here topological sort can be used to figure out what order the files should be loaded in so that each is only loaded once and all dependencies are met. - - **Project management tools with Gantt charts**. A Gantt chart is a graph that outlines all the dependencies of a given task and gives you an estimate of when it will be complete based on those dependencies. I'm not a fan of Gantt charts, but it's highly likely that tsort will be used to draw them. - -###Squeezing data with Huffman coding### -[Huffman coding](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffman_coding) is an algorithm used for lossless data compression. It works by analyzing the data you want to compress and creating a binary code for each character. More frequently occurring characters get smaller codes, so `e` might be encoded as `111` while `x` might be `10010`. The codes are created so that they can be concatenated without a delimeter and still be decoded accurately. - -Huffman coding is used along with LZ77 in the DEFLATE algorithm which is used by gzip to compress things. gzip is used all over the place, in particular for compressing files (typically anything with a `.gz` extension) and for http requests/responses in transit. - -Knowing how to implement and use Huffman coding has a number of benefits: - - - You'll know why a larger compression context results in better compression overall (e.g. the more you compress, the better the compression ratio). This is one of the proposed benefits of SPDY: that you get better compression on multiple HTTP requests/responses. - - You'll know that if you're compressing your javascript/css in transit anyway, it's completely pointless to run a minifier on them. Sames goes for PNG files, which use DEFLATE internally for compression already. - - If you ever find yourself trying to forcibly decipher encrypted information , you may realize that since repeating data compresses better, the compression ratio of a given bit of ciphertext will help you determine it's [block cipher mode of operation](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation). - -###Picking what to learn next is hard### -Being a programmer involves learning constantly. To operate as a web developer you need to know markup languages, high level languages like ruby/python, regular expressions, SQL and JavaScript. You need to know the fine details of HTTP, how to drive a unix terminal and the subtle art of object oriented programming. It's difficult to navigate that landscape effectively and choose what to learn next. - -I'm not a fast learner so I have to choose what to spend time on very carefully. As much as possible, I want to learn skills and techniques that are evergreen, that is, won't be rendered obsolete in a few years time. That means I'm hesitant to learn the javascript framework of the week or untested programming languages and environments. - -As long as our dominant model of computation stays the same, data structures and algorithms that we use today will be used in some form or another in the future. You can safely spend time on gaining a deep and thorough knowledge of them and know that they will pay dividends for your entire career as a programmer. - -###Sign up to the Happy Bear Software List### -Find this article useful? For a regular dose of freshly squeezed technical content delivered straight to your inbox, **click on the big green button below to sign up to the Happy Bear Software mailing list.** - -We'll only be in touch a few times per month and you can unsubscribe at any time. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.happybearsoftware.com/how-learning-data-structures-and-algorithms-makes-you-a-better-developer - -作者：[Happy Bear][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.happybearsoftware.com/ -[1]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffman_coding -[2]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation - - - diff --git a/sources/talk/20150827 The Strangest Most Unique Linux Distros.md b/sources/talk/20150827 The Strangest Most Unique Linux Distros.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..04ff47952a --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/talk/20150827 The Strangest Most Unique Linux Distros.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +The Strangest, Most Unique Linux Distros +================================================================================ +From the most consumer focused distros like Ubuntu, Fedora, Mint or elementary OS to the more obscure, minimal and enterprise focused ones such as Slackware, Arch Linux or RHEL, I thought I've seen them all. Couldn't have been any further from the truth. Linux eco-system is very diverse. There's one for everyone. Let's discuss the weird and wacky world of niche Linux distros that represents the true diversity of open platforms. + +![strangest linux distros](http://2.bp.blogspot.com/--cSL2-6rIgA/VcwNc5hFebI/AAAAAAAAJzk/AgB55mVtJVQ/s1600/Puppy-Linux.png) + +**Puppy Linux**: An operating system which is about 1/10th the size of an average DVD quality movie rip, that's Puppy Linux for you. The OS is just 100 MB in size! And it can run from RAM making it unusually fast even in older PCs. You can even remove the boot medium after the operating system has started! Can it get any better than that? System requirements are bare minimum, most hardware are automatically detected, and it comes loaded with software catering to your basic needs. [Experience Puppy Linux][1]. + +![suicide linux](http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-dfeehRIQKpo/VdMgRVQqIJI/AAAAAAAAJz0/TmBs-n2K9J8/s1600/suicide-linux.jpg) + +**Suicide Linux**: Did the name scare you? Well it should. 'Any time - any time - you type any remotely incorrect command, the interpreter creatively resolves it into rm -rf / and wipes your hard drive'. Simple as that. I really want to know the ones who are confident enough to risk their production machines with [Suicide Linux][2]. **Warning: DO NOT try this on production machines!** The whole thing is available in a neat [DEB package][3] if you're interested. + +![top 10 strangest linux distros](http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Q0hlEMCD9-o/VdMieAiXY1I/AAAAAAAAJ0M/iS_ZjVaZAk8/s1600/papyros.png) + +**PapyrOS**: "Strange" in a good way. PapyrOS is trying to adapt the material design language of Android into their brand new Linux distribution. Though the project is in early stages, it already looks very promising. The project page says the OS is 80% complete and one can expect the first Alpha release anytime soon. We did a small write up on [PapyrOS][4] when it was announced and by the looks of it, PapyrOS might even become a trend-setter of sorts. Follow the project on [Google+][5] and contribute via [BountySource][6] if you're interested. + +![10 most unique linux distros](http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-8aOtnTp3Yxk/VdMo_KWs4sI/AAAAAAAAJ0o/3NTqhaw60jM/s1600/qubes-linux.png) + +**Qubes OS**: Qubes is an open-source operating system designed to provide strong security using a Security by Compartmentalization approach. The assumption is that there can be no perfect, bug-free desktop environment. And by implementing a 'Security by Isolation' approach, [Qubes Linux][7] intends to remedy that. Qubes is based on Xen, the X Window System, and Linux, and can run most Linux applications and supports most Linux drivers. Qubes was selected as a finalist of Access Innovation Prize 2014 for Endpoint Security Solution. + +![top10 linux distros](http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2Sqvb_lilC0/VdMq_ceoXnI/AAAAAAAAJ00/kot20ugVJFk/s1600/ubuntu-satanic.jpg) + +**Ubuntu Satanic Edition**: Ubuntu SE is a Linux distribution based on Ubuntu. "It brings together the best of free software and free metal music" in one comprehensive package consisting of themes, wallpapers, and even some heavy-metal music sourced from talented new artists. Though the project doesn't look actively developed anymore, Ubuntu Satanic Edition is strange in every sense of that word. [Ubuntu SE (Slightly NSFW)][8]. + +![10 strange linux distros](http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZtIVjGMqdx0/VdMv136Pz1I/AAAAAAAAJ1E/-q34j-TXyUY/s1600/tiny-core-linux.png) + +**Tiny Core Linux**: Puppy Linux not small enough? Try this. Tiny Core Linux is a 12 MB graphical Linux desktop! Yep, you read it right. One major caveat: It is not a complete desktop nor is all hardware completely supported. It represents only the core needed to boot into a very minimal X desktop typically with wired internet access. There is even a version without the GUI called Micro Core Linux which is just 9MB in size. [Tiny Core Linux][9] folks. + +![top 10 unique and special linux distros](http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-idmCvIxtxeo/VdcqcggBk1I/AAAAAAAAJ1U/DTQCkiLqlLk/s1600/nixos.png) + +**NixOS**: A very experienced-user focused Linux distribution with a unique approach to package and configuration management. In other distributions, actions such as upgrades can be dangerous. Upgrading a package can cause other packages to break, upgrading an entire system is much less reliable than reinstalling from scratch. And top of all that you can't safely test what the results of a configuration change will be, there's no "Undo" so to speak. In NixOS, the entire operating system is built by the Nix package manager from a description in a purely functional build language. This means that building a new configuration cannot overwrite previous configurations. Most of the other features follow this pattern. Nix stores all packages in isolation from each other. [More about NixOS][10]. + +![strangest linux distros](http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rOYfBXg-UiU/VddCF7w_xuI/AAAAAAAAJ1w/Nf11bOheOwM/s1600/gobolinux.jpg) + +**GoboLinux**: This is another very unique Linux distro. What makes GoboLinux so different from the rest is its unique re-arrangement of the filesystem. It has its own subdirectory tree, where all of its files and programs are stored. GoboLinux does not have a package database because the filesystem is its database. In some ways, this sort of arrangement is similar to that seen in OS X. [Get GoboLinux][11]. + +![strangest linux distros](http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3P22pYfih6Y/VdcucPOv4LI/AAAAAAAAJ1g/PszZDbe83sQ/s1600/hannah-montana-linux.jpg) + +**Hannah Montana Linux**: Here is a Linux distro based on Kubuntu with a Hannah Montana themed boot screen, KDM, icon set, ksplash, plasma, color scheme, and wallpapers (I'm so sorry). [Link][12]. Project not active anymore. + +**RLSD Linux**: An extremely minimalistic, small, lightweight and security-hardened, text-based operating system built on Linux. "It's a unique distribution that provides a selection of console applications and home-grown security features which might appeal to hackers," developers claim. [RLSD Linux][13]. + +Did we miss anything even stranger? Let us know. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.techdrivein.com/2015/08/the-strangest-most-unique-linux-distros.html + +作者：Manuel Jose +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://puppylinux.org/main/Overview%20and%20Getting%20Started.htm +[2]:http://qntm.org/suicide +[3]:http://sourceforge.net/projects/suicide-linux/files/ +[4]:http://www.techdrivein.com/2015/02/papyros-material-design-linux-coming-soon.html +[5]:https://plus.google.com/communities/109966288908859324845/stream/3262a3d3-0797-4344-bbe0-56c3adaacb69 +[6]:https://www.bountysource.com/teams/papyros +[7]:https://www.qubes-os.org/ +[8]:http://ubuntusatanic.org/ +[9]:http://tinycorelinux.net/ +[10]:https://nixos.org/ +[11]:http://www.gobolinux.org/ +[12]:http://hannahmontana.sourceforge.net/ +[13]:http://rlsd2.dimakrasner.com/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/20150909 Superclass--15 of the world's best living programmers.md b/sources/talk/20150909 Superclass--15 of the world's best living programmers.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..70a9803b10 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/talk/20150909 Superclass--15 of the world's best living programmers.md @@ -0,0 +1,389 @@ +Superclass: 15 of the world’s best living programmers +================================================================================ +When developers discuss who the world’s top programmer is, these names tend to come up a lot. + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/article/2015/09/superman-620x465-100611650-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [tom_bullock CC BY 2.0][1] + +It seems like there are lots of programmers out there these days, and lots of really good programmers. But which one is the very best? + +Even though there’s no way to really say who the best living programmer is, that hasn’t stopped developers from frequently kicking the topic around. ITworld has solicited input and scoured coder discussion forums to see if there was any consensus. As it turned out, a handful of names did frequently get mentioned in these discussions. + +Use the arrows above to read about 15 people commonly cited as the world’s best living programmer. + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/article/2015/09/margaret_hamilton-620x465-100611764-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [NASA][2] + +### Margaret Hamilton ### + +**Main claim to fame: The brains behind Apollo’s flight control software** + +Credentials: As the Director of the Software Engineering Division at Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, she headed up the team which [designed and built][3] the on-board [flight control software for NASA’s Apollo][4] and Skylab missions. Based on her Apollo work, she later developed the [Universal Systems Language][5] and [Development Before the Fact][6] paradigm. Pioneered the concepts of [asynchronous software, priority scheduling, and ultra-reliable software design][7]. Coined the term “[software engineering][8].” Winner of the [Augusta Ada Lovelace Award][9] in 1986 and [NASA’s Exceptional Space Act Award in 2003][10]. + +Quotes: “Hamilton invented testing , she pretty much formalised Computer Engineering in the US.” [ford_beeblebrox][11] + +“I think before her (and without disrespect including Knuth) computer programming was (and to an extent remains) a branch of mathematics. However a flight control system for a spacecraft clearly moves programming into a different paradigm.” [Dan Allen][12] + +“... she originated the term ‘software engineering’ — and offered a great example of how to do it.” [David Hamilton][13] + +“What a badass” [Drukered][14] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_donald_knuth-620x465-100502872-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [vonguard CC BY-SA 2.0][15] + +### Donald Knuth ### + +**Main claim to fame: Author of The Art of Computer Programming** + +Credentials: Wrote the [definitive book on the theory of programming][16]. Created the TeX digital typesetting system. [First winner of the ACM’s Grace Murray Hopper Award][17] in 1971. Winner of the ACM’s [A. M. Turing][18] Award in 1974, the [National Medal of Science][19] in 1979 and the IEEE’s [John von Neumann Medal][20] in 1995. Named a [Fellow at the Computer History Museum][21] in 1998. + +Quotes: “... wrote The Art of Computer Programming which is probably the most comprehensive work on computer programming ever.” [Anonymous][22] + +“There is only one large computer program I have used in which there are to a decent approximation 0 bugs: Don Knuth's TeX. That's impressive.” [Jaap Weel][23] + +“Pretty awesome if you ask me.” [Mitch Rees-Jones][24] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_ken-thompson-620x465-100502874-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Association for Computing Machinery][25] + +### Ken Thompson ### + +**Main claim to fame: Creator of Unix** + +Credentials: Co-creator, [along with Dennis Ritchie][26], of Unix. Creator of the [B programming language][27], the [UTF-8 character encoding scheme][28], the ed [text editor][29], and co-developer of the Go programming language. Co-winner (along with Ritchie) of the [A.M. Turing Award][30] in 1983, [IEEE Computer Pioneer Award][31] in 1994, and the [National Medal of Technology][32] in 1998. Inducted as a [fellow of the Computer History Museum][33] in 1997. + +Quotes: “... probably the most accomplished programmer ever. Unix kernel, Unix tools, world-champion chess program Belle, Plan 9, Go Language.” [Pete Prokopowicz][34] + +“Ken's contributions, more than anyone else I can think of, were fundamental and yet so practical and timeless they are still in daily use.“ [Jan Jannink][35] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_richard_stallman-620x465-100502868-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy Jiel Beaumadier CC BY-SA 3.0 + +### Richard Stallman ### + +**Main claim to fame: Creator of Emacs, GCC** + +Credentials: Founded the [GNU Project][36] and created many of its core tools, such as [Emacs, GCC, GDB][37], and [GNU Make][38]. Also founded the [Free Software Foundation][39]. Winner of the ACM's [Grace Murray Hopper Award][40] in 1990 and the [EFF's Pioneer Award in 1998][41]. + +Quotes: “... there was the time when he single-handedly outcoded several of the best Lisp hackers around, in the Symbolics vs LMI fight.” [Srinivasan Krishnan][42] + +“Through his amazing mastery of programming and force of will, he created a whole sub-culture in programming and computers.” [Dan Dunay][43] + +“I might disagree on many things with the great man, but he is still one of the most important programmers, alive or dead” [Marko Poutiainen][44] + +“Try to imagine Linux without the prior work on the GNu project. Stallman's the bomb, yo.” [John Burnette][45] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_anders_hejlsberg-620x465-100502873-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [D.Begley CC BY 2.0][46] + +### Anders Hejlsberg ### + +**Main claim to fame: Creator of Turbo Pascal** + +Credentials: [The original author of what became Turbo Pascal][47], one of the most popular Pascal compilers and the first integrated development environment. Later, [led the building of Delphi][48], Turbo Pascal’s successor. [Chief designer and architect of C#][49]. Winner of [Dr. Dobb's Excellence in Programming Award][50] in 2001. + +Quotes: “He wrote the [Pascal] compiler in assembly language for both of the dominant PC operating systems of the day (DOS and CPM). It was designed to compile, link and run a program in seconds rather than minutes.” [Steve Wood][51] + +“I revere this guy - he created the development tools that were my favourite through three key periods along my path to becoming a professional software engineer.” [Stefan Kiryazov][52] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_doug_cutting-620x465-100502871-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [vonguard CC BY-SA 2.0][53] + +### Doug Cutting ### + +**Main claim to fame: Creator of Lucene** + +Credentials: [Developed the Lucene search engine, as well as Nutch][54], a web crawler, and [Hadoop][55], a set of tools for distributed processing of large data sets. A strong proponent of open-source (Lucene, Nutch and Hadoop are all open-source). Currently [a former director of the Apache Software Foundation][56]. + +Quotes: “... he is the same guy who has written an exceptional search framework(lucene/solr) and opened the big-data gateway to the world(hadoop).” [Rajesh Rao][57] + +“His creation/work on Lucene and Hadoop (among other projects) has created a tremendous amount of wealth and employment for folks in the world….” [Amit Nithianandan][58] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_sanjay_ghemawat-620x465-100502876-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Association for Computing Machinery][59] + +### Sanjay Ghemawat ### + +**Main claim to fame: Key Google architect** + +Credentials: [Helped to design and implement some of Google’s large distributed systems][60], including MapReduce, BigTable, Spanner and Google File System. [Created Unix’s ical][61] calendaring system. Elected to the [National Academy of Engineering][62] in 2009. Winner of the [ACM-Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences][63] in 2012. + +Quote: “Jeff Dean's wingman.” [Ahmet Alp Balkan][64] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_jeff_dean-620x465-100502866-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Google][65] + +### Jeff Dean ### + +**Main claim to fame: The brains behind Google search indexing** + +Credentials: Helped to design and implement [many of Google’s large-scale distributed systems][66], including website crawling, indexing and searching, AdSense, MapReduce, BigTable and Spanner. Elected to the [National Academy of Engineering][67] in 2009. 2012 winner of the ACM’s [SIGOPS Mark Weiser Award][68] and the [ACM-Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences][69]. + +Quotes: “... for bringing breakthroughs in data mining( GFS, Map and Reduce, Big Table ).” [Natu Lauchande][70] + +“... conceived, built, and deployed MapReduce and BigTable, among a bazillion other things” [Erik Goldman][71] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/article/2015/09/linus_torvalds-620x465-100611765-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Krd CC BY-SA 4.0][72] + +### Linus Torvalds ### + +**Main claim to fame: Creator of Linux** + +Credentials: Created the [Linux kernel][73] and [Git][74], an open source version control system. Winner of numerous awards and honors, including the [EFF Pioneer Award][75] in 1998, the [British Computer Society’s Lovelace Medal][76] in 2000, the [Millenium Technology Prize][77] in 2012 and the [IEEE Computer Society’s Computer Pioneer Award][78] in 2014. Also inducted into the [Computer History Museum’s Hall of Fellows][79] in 2008 and the [Internet Hall of Fame][80] in 2012. + +Quotes: “To put into prospective what an achievement this is, he wrote the Linux kernel in a few years while the GNU Hurd (a GNU-developed kernel) has been under development for 25 years and has still yet to release a production-ready example.” [Erich Ficker][81] + +“Torvalds is probably the programmer's programmer.” [Dan Allen][82] + +“He's pretty darn good.” [Alok Tripathy][83] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_john_carmack-620x465-100502867-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [QuakeCon CC BY 2.0][84] + +### John Carmack ### + +**Main claim to fame: Creator of Doom** + +Credentials: Cofounded id Software and [created such influential FPS games][85] as Wolfenstein 3D, Doom and Quake. Pioneered such ground-breaking computer graphic techniques [adaptive tile refresh][86], [binary space partitioning][87], and surface caching. Inducted into the [Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences Hall of Fame][88] in 2001, [won Emmy awards][89] in the Engineering & Technology category in 2007 and 2008, and given a lifetime achievement award by the [Game Developers Choice Awards][90] in 2010. + +Quotes: “He wrote his first rendering engine before he was 20 years old. The guy's a genius. I wish I were a quarter a programmer he is.” [Alex Dolinsky][91] + +“... Wolfenstein 3D, Doom and Quake were revolutionary at the time and have influenced a generation of game designers.” [dniblock][92] + +“He can write basically anything in a weekend....” [Greg Naughton][93] + +“He is the Mozart of computer coding….” [Chris Morris][94] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_fabrice_bellard-620x465-100502870-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Duff][95] + +### Fabrice Bellard ### + +**Main claim to fame: Creator of QEMU** + +Credentials: Created a [variety of well-known open-source software programs][96], including QEMU, a platform for hardware emulation and virtualization, FFmpeg, for handling multimedia data, the Tiny C Compiler and LZEXE, an executable file compressor. [Winner of the Obfuscated C Code Contest][97] in 2000 and 2001 and the [Google-O'Reilly Open Source Award][98] in 2011. Former world record holder for [calculating the most number of digits in Pi][99]. + +Quotes: “I find Fabrice Bellard's work remarkable and impressive.” [raphinou][100] + +“Fabrice Bellard is the most productive programmer in the world....” [Pavan Yara][101] + +“Hes like the Nikola Tesla of sofware engineering.” [Michael Valladolid][102] + +“He's a prolific serial achiever since the 1980s.” M[ichael Biggins][103] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_jon_skeet-620x465-100502863-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Craig Murphy CC BY 2.0][104] + +### Jon Skeet ### + +**Main claim to fame: Legendary Stack Overflow contributor** + +Credentials: Google engineer and author of [C# in Depth][105]. Holds [highest reputation score of all time on Stack Overflow][106], answering, on average, 390 questions per month. + +Quotes: “Jon Skeet doesn't need a debugger, he just stares down the bug until the code confesses” [Steven A. Lowe][107] + +“When Jon Skeet's code fails to compile the compiler apologises.” [Dan Dyer][108] + +“Jon Skeet's code doesn't follow a coding convention. It is the coding convention.” [Anonymous][109] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_image_adam_dangelo-620x465-100502875-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Philip Neustrom CC BY 2.0][110] + +### Adam D'Angelo ### + +**Main claim to fame: Co-founder of Quora** + +Credentials: As an engineer at Facebook, [built initial infrastructure for its news feed][111]. Went on to become CTO and VP of engineering at Facebook, before leaving to co-found Quora. [Eighth place finisher at the USA Computing Olympiad][112] as a high school student in 2001. Member of [California Institute of Technology’s silver medal winning team][113] at the ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest in 2004. [Finalist in the Algorithm Coding Competition][114] of Topcoder Collegiate Challenge in 2005. + +Quotes: “An "All-Rounder" Programmer.” [Anonymous][115] + +"For every good thing I make he has like six." [Mark Zuckerberg][116] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_petr_mitrichev-620x465-100502869-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Facebook][117] + +### Petr Mitrechev ### + +**Main claim to fame: One of the top competitive programmers of all time** + +Credentials: [Two-time gold medal winner][118] in the International Olympiad in Informatics (2000, 2002). In 2006, [won the Google Code Jam][119] and was also the [TopCoder Open Algorithm champion][120]. Also, two-time winner of the Facebook Hacker Cup ([2011][121], [2013][122]). At the time of this writing, [the second ranked algorithm competitor on TopCoder][123] (handle: Petr) and also [ranked second by Codeforces][124] + +Quote: “He is an idol in competitive programming even here in India…” [Kavish Dwivedi][125] + +![](http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/imageapi/2014/10/08/17/slide_gennady_korot-620x465-100502864-orig.jpg) + +Image courtesy [Ishandutta2007 CC BY-SA 3.0][126] + +### Gennady Korotkevich ### + +**Main claim to fame: Competitive programming prodigy** + +Credentials: Youngest participant ever (age 11) and [6 time gold medalist][127] (2007-2012) in the International Olympiad in Informatics. Part of [the winning team][128] at the ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest in 2013 and winner of the [2014 Facebook Hacker Cup][129]. At the time of this writing, [ranked first by Codeforces][130] (handle: Tourist) and [first among algorithm competitors by TopCoder][131]. + +Quotes: “A programming prodigy!” [Prateek Joshi][132] + +“Gennady is definitely amazing, and visible example of why I have a large development team in Belarus.” [Chris Howard][133] + +“Tourist is genius” [Nuka Shrinivas Rao][134] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.itworld.com/article/2823547/enterprise-software/158256-superclass-14-of-the-world-s-best-living-programmers.html#slide1 + +作者：[Phil Johnson][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.itworld.com/author/Phil-Johnson/ +[1]:https://www.flickr.com/photos/tombullock/15713223772 +[2]:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Margaret_Hamilton_in_action.jpg 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+[134]:http://www.quora.com/Computer-Programming/Who-is-the-best-programmer-in-the-world-right-now/answer/Prateek-Joshi/comment/4880549 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/20150910 The Free Software Foundation--30 years in.md b/sources/talk/20150910 The Free Software Foundation--30 years in.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f782b2e876 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/talk/20150910 The Free Software Foundation--30 years in.md @@ -0,0 +1,149 @@ +The Free Software Foundation: 30 years in +================================================================================ +![](http://opensource.com/sites/default/files/styles/image-full-size/public/images/life/osdc_general_openfield.png?itok=tcXpYeHi) + +Welcome back, folks, to a new Six Degrees column. As usual, please send your thoughts on this piece to the comment box and your suggestions for future columns to [my inbox][1]. + +Now, I have to be honest with you all, this column went a little differently than I expected. + +A few weeks ago when thinking what to write, I mused over the notion of a piece about the [Free Software Foundation][2] celebrating its 30 year anniversary and how relevant and important its work is in today's computing climate. + +To add some meat I figured I would interview [John Sullivan][3], executive director of the FSF. My plan was typical of many of my pieces: thread together an interesting narrative and quote pieces of the interview to give it color. + +Well, that all went out the window when John sent me a tremendously detailed, thoughtful, and descriptive interview. I decided therefore to present it in full as the main event, and to add some commentary throughout. Thus, this is quite a long column, but I think it paints a fascinating picture of a fascinating organization. I recommend you grab a cup of something delicious and settle in for a solid read. + +### The sands of change ### + +The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985. To paint a picture of what computing was like back then, the [Amiga 1000][4] was released, C++ was becoming a dominant language, [Aldus PageMaker][5] was announced, and networking was just starting to grow. Oh, and that year [Careless Whisper][6] by Wham! was a major hit. + +Things have changed a lot in 30 years. Back in 1985 the FSF was primarily focused on building free pieces of software that were primarily useful to nerdy computer people. These days we have software, services, social networks, and more to consider. + +I first wanted to get a sense of what John feels are most prominent risks to software freedom today. + +"I think there's widespread agreement on the biggest risks for computer user freedom today, but maybe not on the names for them." + +"The first is what we might as well just call 'tiny computers everywhere.' The free software movement has succeeded to the point where laptops, desktops, and servers can run fully free operating systems doing anything users of proprietary systems can do. There are still a few holes, but they'll be closed. The challenge that remains in this area is to cut through the billion dollar marketing budgets and legal regimes working against us to actually get the systems into users hands." + +"However, we have a serious problem on the set of computers whose primary common trait is that they are very small. Even though a car is not especially small, the computers in it are, so I include that form factor in this category, along with phones, tablets, glasses, watches, and so on. While these computers often have a basis in free software—for example, using the kernel Linux along with other free software like Android or GNU—their primary uses are to run proprietary applications and be shims for services that replace local computing with computing done on a server over which the user has no control. Since these devices serve vital functions, with some being primary means of communication for huge populations, some sitting very close to our bodies and our actual vital functions, some bearing responsibility for our physical safety, it is imperative that they run fully free systems under their users' control. Right now, they don't." + +John feels the risk here is not just the platforms and form factors, but the services integrates into them. + +"The services many of these devices talk to are the second major threat we face. It does us little good booting into a free system if we do our actual work and entertainment on companies' servers running software we have no access to at all. The point of free software is that we can see, modify, and share code. The existence of those freedoms even for nontechnical users provides a shield that prevents companies from controlling us. None of these freedoms exist for users of Facebook or Salesforce or Google Docs. Even more worrisome, we see a trend where people are accepting proprietary restrictions imposed on their local machines in order to have access to certain services. Browsers—including Firefox—are now automatically installing a DRM plugin in order to appease Netflix and other video giants. We need to work harder at developing free software decentralized replacements for media distribution that can actually empower users, artists, and user-artists, and for other services as well. For Facebook we have GNU social, pump.io, Diaspora, Movim, and others. For Salesforce, we have CiviCRM. For Google Docs, we have Etherpad. For media, we have GNU MediaGoblin. But all of these projects need more help, and many services don't have any replacement contenders yet." + +It is interesting that John mentions finding free software equivalents for common applications and services today. The FSF maintains a list of "High Priority Projects" that are designed to fill this gap. Unfortunately the capabilities of these projects varies tremendously and in an age where social media is so prominent, the software is only part of the problem: the real challenge is getting people to use it. + +This all begs the question of where the FSF fit in today's modern computing world. I am a fan of the FSF. I think the work they do is valuable and I contribute financially to support it too. They are an important organization for building an open computing culture, but all organizations need to grow, adjust, and adapt, particularly ones in the technology space. + +I wanted to get a better sense of what the FSF is doing today that it wasn't doing at it's inception. + +"We're speaking to a much larger audience than we were 30 years ago, and to a much broader audience. It's no longer just hackers and developers and researchers that need to know about free software. Everyone using a computer does, and it's quickly becoming the case that everyone uses a computer." + +John went on to provide some examples of these efforts. + +"We're doing coordinated public advocacy campaigns on issues of concern to the free software movement. Earlier in our history, we expressed opinions on these things, and took action on a handful, but in the last ten years we've put more emphasis on formulating and carrying out coherent campaigns. We've made especially significant noise in the area of Digital Restrictions Management (DRM) with Defective by Design, which I believe played a role in getting iTunes music off DRM (now of course, Apple is bringing DRM back with Apple Music). We've made attractive and useful introductory materials for people new to free software, like our [User Liberation animated video][7] and our [Email Self-Defense Guide][8]. + +We're also endorsing hardware that [respects users' freedoms][9]. Hardware distributors whose devices have been certified by the FSF to contain and require only free software can display a logo saying so. Expanding the base of free software users and the free software movement has two parts: convincing people to care, and then making it possible for them to act on that. Through this initiative, we encourage manufacturers and distributors to do the right thing, and we make it easy for users who have started to care about free software to buy what they need without suffering through hours and hours of research. We've certified a home WiFi router, 3D printers, laptops, and USB WiFi adapters, with more on the way. + +We're collecting all of the free software we can find in our [Free Software Directory][10]. We still have a long way to go on this—we're at only about 15,500 packages right now, and we can imagine many improvements to the design and function of the site—but I think this resource has great potential for helping users find the free software they need, especially users who aren't yet using a full GNU/Linux system. With the dangers inherent in downloading random programs off the Internet, there is a definite need for a curated collection like this. It also happens to provide a wealth of machine-readable data of use to researchers. + +We're acting as the fiscal sponsor for several specific free software projects, enabling them to raise funds for development. Most of these projects are part of GNU (which we continue to provide many kinds of infrastructure for), but we also sponsor [Replicant][11], a fully free fork of Android designed to give users the free-est mobile devices currently possible. + +We're helping developers use free software licenses properly, and we're following up on complaints about companies that aren't following the terms of the GPL. We help them fix their mistakes and distribute properly. RMS was in fact doing similar work with the precursors of the GPL very early on, but it's now an ongoing part of our work. + +Most of the specific things the FSF does now it wasn't doing 30 years ago, but the vision is little changed from the original paperwork—we aim to create a world where everything users want to do on any computer can be done using free software; a world where users control their computers and not the other way around." + +### A cult of personality ### + +There is little doubt in anyone's minds about the value the FSF brings. As John just highlighted, its efforts span not just the creation and licensing of free software, but also recognizing, certifying, and advocating a culture of freedom in technology. + +The head of the FSF is the inimitable Richard M. Stallman, commonly referred to as RMS. + +RMS is a curious character. He has demonstrated an unbelievable level of commitment to his ideas, philosophy, and ethical devotion to freedom in software. + +While he is sometimes mocked online for his social awkwardness, be it things said in his speeches, his bizarre travel requirements, or other sometimes cringeworthy moments, RMS's perspectives on software and freedom are generally rock-solid. He takes a remarkably consistent approach to his perspectives and he is clearly a careful thinker about not just his own thoughts but the wider movement he is leading. My only criticism is that I think from time to time he somewhat over-eggs the pudding with the voracity of his words. But hey, given his importance in our world, I would rather take an extra egg than no pudding for anyone. O.K., I get that the whole pudding thing here was strained... + +So RMS is a key part of the FSF, but the organization is also much more than that. There are employees, a board, and many contributors. I was curious to see how much of a role RMS plays these days in the FSF. John shared this with me. + +"RMS is the FSF's President, and does that work without receiving a salary from the FSF. He continues his grueling global speaking schedule, advocating for free software and computer user freedom in dozens of countries each year. In the course of that, he meets with government officials as well as local activists connected with all varieties of social movements. He also raises funds for the FSF and inspires many people to volunteer." + +"In between engagements, he does deep thinking on issues facing the free software movement, and anticipates new challenges. Often this leads to new articles—he wrote a 3-part series for Wired earlier this year about free software and free hardware designs—or new ideas communicated to the FSF's staff as the basis for future projects." + +As we delved into the cult of personality, I wanted to tap John's perspectives on how wide the free software movement has grown. + +I remember being at the [Open Source Think Tank][12] (an event that brings together execs from various open source organizations) and there was a case study where attendees were asked to recommend license choice for a particular project. The vast majority of break-out groups recommended the Apache Software License (APL) over the GNU Public License (GPL). + +This stuck in my mind as since then I have noticed that many companies seem to have opted for open licenses other than the GPL. I was curious to see if John had noticed a trend towards the APL as opposed to the GPL. + +"Has there been? I'm not so sure. I gave a presentation at FOSDEM a few years ago called 'Is Copyleft Being Framed?' that showed some of the problems with the supposed data behind claims of shifts in license adoption. I'll be publishing an article soon on this, but here's some of the major problems: + + +- Free software license choices do not exist in a vacuum. The number of people choosing proprietary software licenses also needs to be considered in order to draw the kinds of conclusions that people want to draw. I find it much more likely that lax permissive license choices (such as the Apache License or 3-clause BSD) are trading off with proprietary license choices, rather than with the GPL. +- License counters often, ironically, don't publish the software they use to collect that data as free software. That means we can't inspect their methods or reproduce their results. Some people are now publishing the code they use, but certainly any that don't should be completely disregarded. Science has rules. +- What counts as a thing with a license? Are we really counting an app under the APL that makes funny noises as 1:1 with GNU Emacs under GPLv3? If not, how do we decide which things to treat as equals? Are we only looking at software that actually works? Are we making sure not to double- and triple- count programs that exist on multiple hosting sites, and what about ports for different OSes? + +The question is interesting to ponder, but every conclusion I've seen so far has been extremely premature in light of the actual data. I'd much rather see a survey of developers asking about why they chose particular licenses for their projects than any more of these attempts to programmatically ascertain the license of programs and then ascribe human intentions on to patterns in that data. + +Copyleft is as vital as it ever was. Permissively licensed software is still free software and on-face a good thing, but it is contingent and needs an accompanying strong social commitment to not incorporate it in proprietary software. If free software's major long-term impact is enabling businesses to more efficiently make products that restrict us, then we have achieved nothing for computer user freedom." + +### Rising to new challenges ### + +30 years is an impressive time for any organization to be around, and particularly one with such important goals that span so many different industries, professions, governments, and cultures. + +As I started to wrap up the interview I wanted to get a better sense of what the FSF's primary function is today, 30 years after the mission started. + +"I think the FSF is in a very interesting position of both being a steady rock and actively pushing the envelope." + +"We have core documents like the [Free Software Definition][13], the [GNU General Public License][14], and the [list we maintain of free and nonfree software licenses][15], which have been keystones in the construction of the world of free software we have today. People place a great deal of trust in us to stay true to the principles outlined in those documents, and to apply them correctly and wisely in our assessments of new products or practices in computing. In this role, we hold the ladder for others to climb. As a 501(c)(3) charity held legally accountable to the public interest, and about 85% funded by individuals, we have the right structure for this." + +"But we also push the envelope. We take on challenges that others say are too hard. I guess that means we also build ladders? Or maybe I should stop with the metaphors." + +While John may not be great with metaphors (like I am one to talk), the FSF is great at setting a mission and demonstrating a devout commitment to it. This mission starts with a belief that free software should be everywhere. + +"We are not satisfied with the idea that you can get a laptop that works with free software except for a few components. We're not satisfied that you can have a tablet that runs a lot of free software, and just uses proprietary software to communicate with networks and to accelerate video and to take pictures and to check in on your flight and to call an Über and to.. Well, we are happy about some such developments for sure, but we are also unhappy about the suggestion that we should be fully content with them. Any proprietary software on a system is both an injustice to the user and inherently a threat to users' security. These almost-free things can be stepping stones on the way to a free world, but only if we keep our feet moving." + +In the early years of the FSF, we actually had to get a free operating system written. This has now been done by GNU and Linux and many collaborators, although there is always more software to write and bugs to fix. So while the FSF does still sponsor free software development in specific areas, there are thankfully many other organizations also doing this." + +A key part of the challenge John is referring to is getting the right hardware into the hands of the right people. + +"What we have been focusing on now are the challenges I highlighted in the first question. We are in desperate need of hardware in several different areas that fully supports free software. We have been talking a lot at the FSF about what we can do to address this, and I expect us to be making some significant moves to both increase our support for some of the projects already out there—as we having been doing to some extent through our Respects Your Freedom certification program—and possibly to launch some projects of our own. The same goes for the network service problem. I think we need to tackle them together, because having full control over the mobile components has great potential for changing how we relate to services, and decentralizing more and more services will in turn shape the mobile components." + +I hope folks will support the FSF as we work to grow and tackle these challenges. Hardware is expensive and difficult, as is making usable, decentralized, federated replacements for network services. We're going to need the resources and creativity of a lot of people. But, 30 years ago, a community rallied around RMS and the concept of copyleft to write an entire operating system. I've spent my last 12 years at the FSF because I believe we can rise to the new challenges in the same way." + +### Final thoughts ### + +In reading John's thoughtful responses to my questions, and in knowing various FSF members, the one sense that resonates for me is the sheer level of passion that is alive and kicking in the FSF. This is not an organization that has got bored or disillusioned with its mission. Its passion and commitment is as voracious as it has ever been. + +While I don't always agree with the FSF and I sometimes think its approach is a little one-dimensional at times, I have been and will continue to be a huge fan and supporter of its work. The FSF represent the ethical heartbeat of much of the free software and open source work that happens across the world. It represents a world view that is pretty hard to the left, but I believe its passion and conviction helps to bring people further to the right a little closer to the left too. + +Sure, RMS can be odd, somewhat hardline, and a little sensational, but he is precisely the kind of leader that is valuable in a movement that encapsulates a mixture of technology, ethics, and culture. We need an RMS in much the same way we need a Torvalds, a Shuttleworth, a Whitehurst, and a Zemlin. These different people bring together mixture of perspectives that ultimately maps to technology that can be adaptable to almost any set of use cases, ethics, and ambitions. + +So, in closing, I want to thank the FSF for its tremendous efforts, and I wish the FSF and its fearless leaders, one Richard M. Stallman and one John Sullivan, another 30 years of fighting the good fight. Go get 'em! + +> This article is part of Jono Bacon's Six Degrees column, where he shares his thoughts and perspectives on culture, communities, and trends in open source. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://opensource.com/business/15/9/free-software-foundation-30-years + +作者：[Jono Bacon][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://opensource.com/users/jonobacon +[1]:Welcome back, folks, to a new Six Degrees column. As usual, please send your thoughts on this piece to the comment box and your suggestions for future columns to my inbox. +[2]:http://www.fsf.org/ +[3]:http://twitter.com/johns_fsf/ +[4]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_1000 +[5]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_PageMaker +[6]:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izGwDsrQ1eQ +[7]:http://fsf.org/ +[8]:http://emailselfdefense.fsf.org/ +[9]:http://fsf.org/ryf +[10]:http://directory.fsf.org/ +[11]:http://www.replicant.us/ +[12]:http://www.osthinktank.com/ +[13]:http://www.fsf.org/about/what-is-free-software +[14]:http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.en.html +[15]:http://www.gnu.org/licenses/licenses.en.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/20150916 Italy's Ministry of Defense to Drop Microsoft Office in Favor of LibreOffice.md b/sources/talk/20150916 Italy's Ministry of Defense to Drop Microsoft Office in Favor of LibreOffice.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f47352ed26 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/talk/20150916 Italy's Ministry of Defense to Drop Microsoft Office in Favor of LibreOffice.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +Italy's Ministry of Defense to Drop Microsoft Office in Favor of LibreOffice +================================================================================ +>**LibreItalia's Italo Vignoli [reports][1] that the Italian Ministry of Defense is about to migrate to the LibreOffice open-source software for productivity and adopt the Open Document Format (ODF), while moving away from proprietary software products.** + +The movement comes in the form of a [collaboration][1] between Italy's Ministry of Defense and the LibreItalia Association. Sonia Montegiove, President of the LibreItalia Association, and Ruggiero Di Biase, Rear Admiral and General Executive Manager of Automated Information Systems of the Ministry of Defense in Italy signed an agreement for a collaboration to adopt the LibreOffice office suite in all of the Ministry's offices. + +While the LibreItalia non-profit organization promises to help the Italian Ministry of Defense with trainers for their offices across the country, the Ministry will start the implementation of the LibreOffice software on October 2015 with online training courses for their staff. The entire transition process is expected to be completed by the end of year 2016\. An Italian law lets officials find open source software alternatives to well-known commercial software. + +"Under the agreement, the Italian Ministry of Defense will develop educational content for a series of online training courses on LibreOffice, which will be released to the community under Creative Commons, while the partners, LibreItalia, will manage voluntarily the communication and training of trainers in the Ministry," says Italo Vignoli, Honorary President of LibreItalia. + +### The Ministry of Defense will adopt the Open Document Format (ODF) + +The initiative will allow the Italian Ministry of Defense to be independent from proprietary software applications, which are aimed at individual productivity, and adopt open source document format standards like Open Document Format (ODF), which is used by default in the LibreOffice office suite. The project follows similar movements already made by governments of other European countries, including United Kingdom, France, Spain, Germany, and Holland. + +It would appear that numerous other public institutions all over Italy are using open source alternatives, including the Italian Region Emilia Romagna, Galliera Hospital in Genoa, Macerata, Cremona, Trento and Bolzano, Perugia, the municipalities of Bologna, ASL 5 of Veneto, Piacenza and Reggio Emilia, and many others. AGID (Agency for Digital Italy) welcomes this project and hopes that other public institutions will do the same. + + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://news.softpedia.com/news/italy-s-ministry-of-defense-to-drop-microsoft-office-in-favor-of-libreoffice-491850.shtml + +作者：[Marius Nestor][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://news.softpedia.com/editors/browse/marius-nestor +[1]:http://www.libreitalia.it/accordo-di-collaborazione-tra-associazione-libreitalia-onlus-e-difesa-per-ladozione-del-prodotto-libreoffice-quale-pacchetto-di-produttivita-open-source-per-loffice-automation/ +[2]:http://www.libreitalia.it/chi-siamo/ diff --git a/sources/talk/20150921 14 tips for teaching open source development.md b/sources/talk/20150921 14 tips for teaching open source development.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b2812d44c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/talk/20150921 14 tips for teaching open source development.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +14 tips for teaching open source development +================================================================================ +Academia is an excellent platform for training and preparing the open source developers of tomorrow. In research, we occasionally open source software we write. We do this for two reasons. One, to promote the use of the tools we produce. And two, to learn more about the impact and issues other people face when using them. With this background of writing research software, I was tasked with redesigning the undergraduate software engineering course for second-year students at the University of Bradford. + +It was a challenge, as I was faced with 80 students coming for different degrees, including IT, business computing, and software engineering, all in the same course. The hardest part was working with students with a wide range of programming experience levels. Traditionally, the course had involved allowing students to choose their own teams, tasking them with building a garage database system and then submitting a report in the end as part of the assessment. + +I decided to redesign the course to give students insight into the process of working on real-world software teams. I divided the students into teams of five or six, based on their degrees and programming skills. The aim was to have an equal distribution of skills across the teams to prevent any unfair advantage of one team over another. + +### The core lessons ### + +The course format was updated to have both lectures and lab sessions. However, the lab session functioned as mentoring sessions, where instructors visited each team to ask for updates and see how the teams were progressing with the clients and the products. There were traditional lectures on project management, software testing, requirements engineering, and similar topics, supplemented by lab sessions and mentor meetings. These meetings allowed us to check up on students' progress and monitor whether they were following the software engineering methodologies taught in the lecture portion. Topics we taught this year included: + +- Requirements engineering +- How to interact with clients and other team members +- Software methodologies, such as agile and extreme programming approaches +- How to use different software engineering approaches and work through sprints +- Team meetings and documentations +- Project management and Gantt charts +- UML diagrams and system descriptions +- Code revisioning using Git +- Software testing and bug tracking +- Using open source libraries for their tools +- Open source licenses and which one to use +- Software delivery + +Along with these lectures, we had a few guest speakers from the corporate world talk about their practices in software product deliveries. We also managed to get the university’s intellectual property lawyer to come and talk about IP issues surrounding software in the UK, and how to handle any intellectual properties issues in software. + +### Collaboration tools ### + +To make all of the above possible, a number of tools were introduced. Students were trained on how to use them for their projects. These included: + +- Google Drive folders shared within the team and the tutor, to maintain documents and spreadsheets for project descriptions, requirements gathering, meeting minutes, and time tracking of the project. This was an extremely efficient way to monitor and also provide feedback straight into the folders for each team. +- [Basecamp][1] for document sharing as well, and later in the course we considered this as a possible replacement for Google Drive. +- Bug reporting tools such as [Mantis][2] again have a limited users for free reporting. Later Git itself was being used for bug reports n any tools by the testers in the teams +- Remote videoconferencing tools were used as a number of clients were off-campus, and sometimes not even in the same city. The students were regularly using Skype to communicate with them, documenting their meetings and sometimes even recording them for later use. +- A number of open source tool kits were also used for students' projects. The students were allowed to choose their own tool kits and languages based on the requirements of the projects. The only condition was that these have to be open source and could be installed in the university labs, which the technical staff was extremely supportive of. +- In the end all teams had to deliver their projects to the client, including complete working version of the software, documentation, and open source licenses of their own choosing. Most of the teams chose the GPL version 3 license. + +### Tips and lessons learned ### + +In the end, it was a fun year and nearly all students did very well. Here are some of the lessons I learned which may help improve the course next year: + +1. Give the students a wide variety of choice in projects that are interesting, such as game development or mobile application development, and projects with goals. Working with mundane database systems is not going to keep most students interested. Working with interesting projects, most students became self-learners, and were also helping others in their teams and outside to solve some common issues. The course also had a message list, where students were posting any issues they were encountering, in hopes of receiving advice from others. However, there was a drawback to this approach. The external examiners have advised us to go back to a style of one type of project, and one type of language to help narrow the assessment criteria for the students. +1. Give students regular feedback on their performance at every stage. This could be done during the mentoring meetings with the teams, or at other stages, to help them improve the work for next time. +1. Students are more than willing to work with clients from outside university! They look forward to working with external company representatives or people outside the university, just because of the new experience. They were all able to display professional behavior when interacting with their mentors, which put the instructors at ease. +1. A lot of teams left developing unit testing until the end of the project, which from an extreme programming methodology standpoint was a serious no-no. Maybe testing should be included at the assessments of the various stages to help remind students that they need to be developing unit tests in parallel with the software. +1. In the class of 80, there were only four girls, each working in different teams. I observed that boys were very ready to take on roles as team leads, assigning the most interesting code pieces to themselves and the girls were mostly following instructions or doing documentation. For some reason, the girls choose not to show authority or preferred not to code even when they were encouraged by a female instructor. This is still a major issue that needs to be addressed. +1. There are different styles of documentation such as using UML, state diagrams, and others. Allow students to learn them all and merge with other courses during the year to improve their learning experience. +1. Some students were very good developers, but some doing business computing had very little coding experience. The teams were encouraged to work together to prevent the idea that developer would get better marks than other team members if they were only doing meeting minutes or documentations. Roles were also encouraged to be rotated during mentoring sessions to see that everyone was getting a chance to learn how to program. +1. Allowing the team to meet with the mentor every week was helpful in monitoring team activities. It also showed who was doing the most work. Usually students who were not participating in their groups would not come to meetings, and could be identified by the work being presented by other members every week. +1. We encouraged students to attach licenses to their work and identify intellectual property issues when working with external libraries and clients. This allowed students to think out of the box and learn about real-world software delivery problems. +1. Give students room to choose their own technologies. +1. Having teaching assistants is key. Managing 80 students was very difficult, especially on the weeks when they were being assessed. Next year I would definitely have teaching assistants helping me with the teams. +1. A supportive tech support for the lab is very important. The university tech support was extremely supportive of the course. Next year, they are talking about having virtual machines assigned to teams, so the teams can install any software on their own virtual machine as needed. +1. Teamwork helps. Most teams exhibited a supportive nature to other team members, and mentoring also helped. +1. Additional support from other staff members is a plus. As a new academic, I needed to learn from experience and also seek advice at multiple points on how to handle certain students and teams if I was confused on how to engage them with the course. Support from senior staff members was very encouraging to me. + +In the end, it was a fun course—not only for the me as an instructor, but for the students as well. There were some issues with learning objectives and traditional grading schemes that still need to be ironed out to reduce the workload it produced on the instructors. For next year, I plan to keep this same format, but hope to come up with a better grading scheme and introduce more software tools that can help monitor project activities and code revisions. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://opensource.com/education/15/9/teaching-open-source-development-undergraduates + +作者：[Mariam Kiran][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://opensource.com/users/mariamkiran +[1]:https://basecamp.com/ +[2]:https://www.mantisbt.org/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/20150921 Red Hat CEO Optimistic on OpenStack Revenue Opportunity.md b/sources/talk/20150921 Red Hat CEO Optimistic on OpenStack Revenue Opportunity.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d176ed8d77 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/talk/20150921 Red Hat CEO Optimistic on OpenStack Revenue Opportunity.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +Red Hat CEO Optimistic on OpenStack Revenue Opportunity +================================================================================ +Red Hat continues to accelerate its growth thanks to an evolving mix of platform and infrastructure technology revolving around Linux and the cloud. Red Hat announced its second quarter fiscal 2016 financial results on September 21, once again exceeding expectations. + +![](http://www.serverwatch.com/imagesvr_ce/1212/icon-redhatcloud-r.jpg) + +For the quarter, Red Hat reported revenue of $504 million for a 13 percent year-over-year gain. Net Income was reported at $51 million, up from $47 Red Hatmillion in the second quarter of fiscal 2015. Looking forward, Red Hat provided some aggressive guidance for the coming quarter and the full year. For the third quarter, Red Hat provided guidance for revenue to be in the range of $519 million to $523 million, which is a 15 percent year-over-year gain. + +On a full year basis, Red Hat's full year guidance is for fiscal 2016 revenue of $2.044 billion, for a 14 percent year-over-year gain. + +Red Hat CFO Frank Calderoni commented during the earnings call that all of Red Hat's top 30 largest deals were approximately $1 million or more. He noted that Red Hat had four deals that were in excess of $5 million and one deal that was well over $10 million. As has been the case in recent years, cross selling across Red Hat products is strong with 65 percent of all deals including one or more components from Red Hat's group of application development and emerging technologies offerings. + +"We expect the growing adoption of these technologies, like Middleware, the RHEL OpenStack platform, OpenShift, cloud management and storage, to continue to drive revenue growth," Calderoni said. + +### OpenStack ### + +During the earnings call, Red Hat CEO Jim Whitehurst was repeatedly asked about the revenue prospects for OpenStack. Whitehurst said that the recently released Red Hat OpenStack Platform 7.0 is a big jump forward thanks to the improved installer. + +"It does a really good job of kind of identifying hardware and lighting it up," Whitehurst said. "Of course, that means there's a lot of work to do around certifying that hardware, making sure it lights up appropriately." + +Whitehurst said that he's starting to see a lot more production application start to move to the OpenStack cloud. He cautioned however that it's still largely the early adopters moving to OpenStack in production and it isn't quite mainstream, yet. + +From a competitive perspective, Whitehurst talked specifically about Microsoft, HP and Mirantis. In Whitehurst's view many organizations will continue to use multiple operating systems and if they choose Microsoft for one part, they are more likely to choose an open-source option,as the alternative option. Whitehurst said he doesn't see a lot of head-to-head competition against HP in cloud, but he does see Mirantis. + +"We've had several wins or people who were moving away from Mirantis to RHEL," Whitehurst said. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.serverwatch.com/server-news/red-hat-ceo-optimistic-on-openstack-revenue-opportunity.html + +作者：[Sean Michael Kerner][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.serverwatch.com/author/Sean-Michael-Kerner-101580.htm \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/20150929 A Slick New Set-Up Wizard Is Coming To Ubuntu and Ubuntu Touch.md b/sources/talk/20150929 A Slick New Set-Up Wizard Is Coming To Ubuntu and Ubuntu Touch.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2c147fb3e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/talk/20150929 A Slick New Set-Up Wizard Is Coming To Ubuntu and Ubuntu Touch.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +A Slick New Set-Up Wizard Is Coming To Ubuntu and Ubuntu Touch +================================================================================ +> Canonical aims to 'seduce and reassure' those unfamiliar with the OS by making a good first impression + +**The Ubuntu installer is set to undergo a dramatic makeover.** + +Ubuntu will modernise its out-of-the-box experience (OOBE) to be easier and quicker to complete, look more ‘seductive’ to new users, and better present the Ubuntu brand through its design. + +Ubiquity, the current Ubuntu installer, has largely remained unchanged since its [introduction back in 2010][1]. + +### First Impressions Are Everything ### + +Since the first thing most users see when trying Ubuntu for the first time is an installer (or set-up wizard, depending on device) the design team feel it’s “one of the most important categories of software usability”. + +“It essentially says how easy your software is to use, as well as introducing the user into your brand through visual design and tone of voice, which can convey familiarity and trust within your product.” + +Canonical’s new OOBE designs show a striking departure from the current look of the Ubiquity installer used by the Ubuntu desktop, and presents a refined approach to the way mobile users ‘set up’ a new Ubuntu Phone. + +![Old design (left) and the new proposed design](http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/desktop-2.jpg) + +Old design (left) and the new proposed design + +Detailing the designs in [new blog post][2], the Canonical Design team say the aim of the revamp is to create a consistent out-of-the-box experience across Ubuntu devices. + +To do this it groups together “common first experiences found on the mobile, tablet and desktop” and unifies the steps and screens between each, something they say moves the OS closer to “achieving a seamless convergent platform.” + +![New Ubuntu installer on desktop/tablet (left) and phone](http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Convergence.jpg) + +New Ubuntu installer on desktop/tablet (left) and phone + +Implementation of the new ‘OOBE’ has already begun’ according to Canonical, though as of writing there’s no firm word on when a revamped installer may land on either desktop or phone images. + +With the march to ‘desktop’ convergence now in full swing, and a(nother) stack of design changes set to hit the mobile build in lieu of the first Ubuntu Phone that ‘transforms’ in to a PC, chances are you won’t have to wait too long to try it out. + +**What do you think of the designs? How would you go about improving the Ubuntu set-up experience? Let us know in the comments below.** + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/2015/09/new-look-ubuntu-installer-coming-soon + +作者：[Joey-Elijah Sneddon][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://plus.google.com/117485690627814051450/?rel=author +[1]:http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/2010/09/ubuntu-10-10s-installer-slideshow-oozes-class +[2]:http://design.canonical.com/wp-content/uploads/Convergence.jpg \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/The history of Android/18 - The history of Android.md b/sources/talk/The history of Android/18 - The history of Android.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8b303033bc..0000000000 --- a/sources/talk/The history of Android/18 - The history of Android.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,85 +0,0 @@ -alim0x translating - -The history of Android -================================================================================ -![Yet another Android Market redesign dips its toe into the "cards" interface that would become a Google staple.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/play-store.png) -Yet another Android Market redesign dips its toe into the "cards" interface that would become a Google staple. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -The Android Market released its fourth new design in Android's two-and-a-half years on the market. This new design was hugely important as it came really close to Google's "cards" interface. By displaying Apps or other content in little blocks, Google could seamlessly transition its app design between screens of various sizes with minimal effort. Content could be displayed just like photos in a gallery app—feed the layout renderer a big list of content blocks, enable screen wrapping, and you were done. Bigger screens saw more blocks of content, and smaller screens only saw a few at a time. With the content display out of the way, Google added a "Categories" fragment to the right side and a big featured app carousel at the top. - -While the design was ready for an easily configurable interface, the functionality was not. The original shipping version of the market was locked to a landscape orientation and was Honeycomb-exclusive. - -![The app page and "My Apps" interface.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/device-2014-02-12-190002.png) -The app page and "My Apps" interface. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -This new market sold not only apps, but brought Books and Movies rentals into the fold as well. Google was selling books since 2010; it was only ever through a Website. The new market unified all of Google's content sales in a single location and brought it one step closer to taking on Apple's iTunes juggernaut, though selling all of these items under the "Android Market" was a bit of a branding snafu, as much of the content didn't require Android to use. - -![The browser did its best to look like Chrome, and Contacts used a two-pane interface.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/browsercontactst.png) -The browser did its best to look like Chrome, and Contacts used a two-pane interface. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -The new Browser added an honest-to-goodness tabs strip at the top of the interface. While this browser wasn't Chrome, it aped a lot of Chrome's design and features. Besides the pioneering tabs-on-top interface, it added Incognito tabs, which kept no history or autocomplete records. There was also an option to have a Chrome-style new tab page consisting of thumbnails of your most-viewed webpages. - -The new Browser even synced with Chrome. After signing in to the browser, it would download your Chrome bookmarks and automatically sign in to Google Web pages with your account. Bookmarking a page was as easy as tapping on the star icon in the address bar. Just like Google Maps, the browser dumped the zoom buttons and went with all gesture controls. - -The contacts app was finally removed from the phone app and broken out into a standalone app. The previous contacts/dialer hybrid was far too phone-centric for how people use a modern smartphone. Contacts housed information for e-mails, IM, texting, addresses, birthdays, and social networks, so tying it to the phone app makes just as much sense as trying it to Google Maps. With the telephony requirements out of the way, contacts could be simplified to a tab-less list of people. Honeycomb went with a dual pane view showing the full contact list on the left and contacts on the right. This again made use of a Fragments API; a hypothetical phone version of this app could show each panel as a single screen. - -The Honeycomb version of Contacts was the first version to have a quick scroll feature. When grabbing the left scroll bar, you could quickly scroll up and down, and a letter preview showed your current spot in the list. - -![The new YouTube app looked like something out of the Matrix.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/youtubes.png) -The new YouTube app looked like something out of the Matrix. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -YouTube thankfully dumped the "unique" design Google came up with for 2.3 and gave the video service a cohesive design that looked like it belonged in Android. The main screen was a horizontally scrolling curved wall of video thumbnails that showed a most popular or (when signed in) personalized selection of videos. While Google never brought this design to phones, it could be considered an easily reconfigurable card interface. The action bar shined here as a reconfigurable toolbar. When not signed it, the action bar was filled with a search bar. When you were signed in, search shrank down to a button, and tabs for "Home," "Browse," and "Your Channel" were shown. - -![Honeycomb really liked to drive home that it was a computer interface with blue scaffolding. Movie Studio completes the Tron look with an orange theme.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/other2.png) -Honeycomb really liked to drive home that it was a computer interface with blue scaffolding. Movie Studio completes the Tron look with an orange theme. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -The lone new app in Honeycomb was "Movie Studio," which was not a self-explanatory app and arrived with no explanations or instructions. As far as we could tell, you could import video clips, cut them up, and add text and scene transitions. Editing video—one of the most time consuming, difficult, and processor-intensive things you can do on a computer—on a tablet felt just a little too ambitious, and Google would completely remove this app in later versions. Our favorite part of Movie Studio was that it really completed the Tron theme. While the rest of the OS used blue highlights, this was all orange. (Movie Studio is an evil program!) - -![Widgets!](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/device-2014-02-12-202224.png) -Widgets! -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -Honeycomb brought a new widget framework that allowed for scrolling widgets, and the Gmail, Email, and Calendar widgets were upgraded to support it. YouTube and Books used a new widget that auto-scrolled through cards of content. By flicking up or down on the widget, you could scroll through the cards. We're not sure what the point of being constantly reminded of your book collection was, but it's there if you want it. While all of these widgets worked great on a 10-inch screen, Google never redesigned them for phones, making them practically useless on Android's most popular form factor. All the widgets had massive identifying headers and usually took up half the screen to show only a few items. - -![The scrollable Recent Apps and resizable widgets in Android 3.1.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/31new.jpg) -The scrollable Recent Apps and resizable widgets in Android 3.1. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -Later versions of Honeycomb would fix many of the early problems 3.0 had. Android 3.1 was released three months after the first version of Honeycomb, and it brought several improvements. Resizable widgets were one of the biggest features added. After long pressing on a widget, a blue outline with grabbable handles would pop up around it, and dragging the handles around would resize the widget. The Recent Apps panel could now scroll vertically and held many more apps. The only feature missing from it at this point was the ability to swipe away apps. - -Today, an 0.1 upgrade is a major release, but in Honeycomb, point releases were considerably smaller. Besides the few UI tweaks, 3.1 added support for gamepads, keyboards, mice, and other input devices over USB and Bluetooth. It also offered a few more developer APIs. - -![Android 3.2's compatibility zoom and a typical stretched-out app on an Android tablet.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/device-2014-02-14-131132.jpg) -Android 3.2's compatibility zoom and a typical stretched-out app on an Android tablet. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -Android 3.2 launched two months after 3.1, adding support for smaller sized tablets in the seven- to eight-inch range. It finally enabled SD card support, which the Xoom carried like a vestigial limb for the first five months of its life. - -Honeycomb was rushed out the door in order to be an ecosystem builder. No one will want an Android tablet if the tablet-specific apps aren't there, and Google knew it needed to get something in the hands of developers ASAP. At this early stage of Android's tablet ecosystem, the apps just weren't there. It was the biggest problem people had with the Xoom. - -3.2 added "Compatibility Zoom," which gave users a new option of stretching apps to the screen (as shown in the right picture) or zooming the normal app layout to fit the screen. Neither option was ideal, and without the app ecosystem to support it, Honeycomb devices sold pretty poorly. Google's tablet moves would eventually pay off though. Today, Android tablets have [taken the market share crown from iOS][1]. - ----------- - -![Ron Amadeo](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content//uploads/authors/ron-amadeo-sq.jpg) - -[Ron Amadeo][a] / Ron is the Reviews Editor at Ars Technica, where he specializes in Android OS and Google products. He is always on the hunt for a new gadget and loves to rip things apart to see how they work. - -[@RonAmadeo][t] - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/06/building-android-a-40000-word-history-of-googles-mobile-os/18/ - -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) 校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[1]:http://techcrunch.com/2014/03/03/gartner-195m-tablets-sold-in-2013-android-grabs-top-spot-from-ipad-with-62-share/ -[a]:http://arstechnica.com/author/ronamadeo -[t]:https://twitter.com/RonAmadeo diff --git a/sources/talk/The history of Android/19 - The history of Android.md b/sources/talk/The history of Android/19 - The history of Android.md deleted file mode 100644 index 32841f5be9..0000000000 --- a/sources/talk/The history of Android/19 - The history of Android.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ -The history of Android -================================================================================ -![Google Music Beta running on Gingerbread.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/device-2014-03-31-110613.png) -Google Music Beta running on Gingerbread. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -### Google Music Beta—cloud storage in lieu of a content store ### - -While Honeycomb revamped the Google Music interface, the Music app didn't go directly from the Honeycomb design to Ice Cream Sandwich. In May 2011, Google launched "[Google Music Beta][1]," an online music locker that came along with a new Google Music app. - -The new Google Music app for 2.2 and up took a few design cues from the Cooliris Gallery, of all things, going with a changing, blurry image for the background. Just about everything was transparent: the pop-up menus, the tabs at the top, and the now-playing bar at the bottom. Individual songs or entire playlists could be downloaded to the device for offline playback, making Google Music an easy way to make sure your music was on all your devices. Besides the mobile app, there was also a Webapp, which allowed Google Music to work on any desktop computer. - -Google didn't have content deals in place with the record companies to start a music store yet, so its stop-gap solution was to allow users to store songs online and stream them to a device. Today, Google has content deals for individual song purchases and all-you-can-eat subscription modes, along with the music locker service. - -### Android 4.0, Ice Cream Sandwich—the modern era ### - -![The Samsung Galaxy Nexus, Android 4.0's launch device.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/samsung-i9250-galaxy-nexus-51.jpg) -The Samsung Galaxy Nexus, Android 4.0's launch device. - -Released in October 2011, Android 4.0, Ice Cream Sandwich, got the OS back on track with a release spanning phones and tablets, and it was once again open source. It was the first update to come to phones since Gingerbread, which meant the majority of Android's user base went almost a year without seeing an update. 4.0 was all about shrinking the Honeycomb design to smaller devices, bringing on-screen buttons, the action bar, and the new design language to phones. - -Ice Cream Sandwich debuted on the Samsung Galaxy Nexus, one of the first Android phones with a 720p screen. Along with the higher resolution, the Galaxy Nexus pushed phones to even larger sizes with a 4.65-inch screen—almost a full inch larger than the original Nexus One. This was called "too big" by many critics, but today many Android phones are even bigger. (Five inches is "normal" now.) Ice Cream Sandwich required a lot more power than Gingerbread did, and the Galaxy Nexus delivered with a dual core, 1.2Ghz TI OMAP processor and 1GB of RAM. - -In the US, the Galaxy Nexus debuted on Verizon with an LTE modem. Unlike previous Nexus devices, the most popular model—the Verizon version—was under the control of a carrier, and Google's software and updates had to be approved by Verizon before the phone could be updated. This led to delays in updates and the removal of software Verizon didn't like, namely Google Wallet. - -Thanks to the software improvements in Ice Cream Sandwich, Google finally achieved peak button removal on a phone. With the on-screen navigation buttons, the capacitive buttons could be removed, leaving the Galaxy Nexus with only power and volume buttons. - -![Android 4.0 shrunk down a lot of the Honeycomb design.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/2home.png) -Android 4.0 shrunk down a lot of the Honeycomb design. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -The Tron aesthetic in Honeycomb was a little much. Immediately in Ice Cream Sandwich, Google started turning down some of the more sci-fi aspects of the design. The sci-fi clock font changed from a folded over semi-transparent thing to a thin, elegant, normal-looking font. The water ripple touch effect on the unlock circle was removed, and the alien Honeycomb clock widget was scrapped in favor of a more minimal design. The system buttons were redesigned, too, changing from blue outlines with the occasional thick side to thin, even, white outlines. The default wallpaper changed from the blue Honeycomb spaceship interior to a streaky, broken rainbow, which added some much-needed color to the default layout. - -The Honeycomb system bar features were split into a two-bar design for phones. At the top was the traditional status bar, and at the bottom was the new system bar, which housed the three system buttons: Back, Home, and Recent. A permanent search bar was added to the top of the home screen. The bar persisted on the screen the same way the dock did, so over the five home screens, it took up 20 icon spots. On the Honeycomb unlock screen, the small inner circle could be moved anywhere outside the larger circle to unlock the device. In Ice Cream Sandwich, you had to actually hit the unlock icon with the inner circle. This new accuracy requirement allowed Google to add another option to the lock screen: a camera shortcut. Dragging the inner circle to the camera icon would directly launch the camera, skipping the home screen. - -![A Phone OS meant a ton more apps, and the notification panel became a full-screen interface again.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/appsandnotic40.png) -A Phone OS meant a ton more apps, and the notification panel became a full-screen interface again. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -The App drawer was still tabbed, but the "My Apps" tab from Honeycomb was replaced with "Widgets," which was a simple 2×3 thumbnail view of widgets. Like Honeycomb, this app drawer was paginated and had to be swiped through horizontally. (Android still uses this app drawer design today.) New in the app drawer was an Android Google+ app, which existed separately for some time. Along with it came a shortcut to "Messenger," the Google+ private messaging service. ("Messenger" is not to be confused with "Messaging," the stock SMS app.) - -Since we're back to a phone now, Messaging, News and Weather, Phone, and Voice Dialer returned, and Cordy, a tablet game, was removed. Our screenshots are from the Verizon variant, which, despite being a Nexus device, was sullied by crapware like "My Verizon Mobile," and "VZ Backup Assistant." In keeping with the de-Tronification theme of Ice Cream Sandwich, the Calendar and Camera icons now looked more like something from Planet Earth rather than alien artifacts. Clock, Downloads, Phone, and Android Market got new icons, too, and "Contacts" got a new icon and a new name, becoming "People." - -The Notification panel got a big overhaul, especially when compared to the [previous Gingerbread design][2]. There was now a top header featuring the date, a settings shortcut, and a "clear all." While first Honeycomb allowed users to dismiss individual notifications by tapping on an "X" in the notification, Ice Cream Sandwich's implementation was much more elegant: just swipe the individual notifications to the left or right and they cleared. Honeycomb had blue highlights, but the blue tone was all over the place. Ice Cream Sandwich unified almost everything to a single blue (hex code #33B5E5, if you want to get specific). The background of the notification panel was made transparent, and the "handle" at the bottom changed to a minimal blue circle with an opaque black background. - -![The main page of the Android Market changed back to black.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/market.png) -The main page of the Android Market changed back to black. -Photo by Ron Amadeo - -The Market got yet another redesign. It finally supported portrait mode again and added Music to the lineup of content you can buy in the store. The new Market extended the cards concept that debuted in Honeycomb and was the first version to use the same application on tablets and phones. The cards on the main page usually didn't link to apps, instead pointing to special promotional pages like "staff picks" or seasonal promotions. - ----------- - -![Ron Amadeo](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content//uploads/authors/ron-amadeo-sq.jpg) - -[Ron Amadeo][a] / Ron is the Reviews Editor at Ars Technica, where he specializes in Android OS and Google products. He is always on the hunt for a new gadget and loves to rip things apart to see how they work. - -[@RonAmadeo][t] - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/06/building-android-a-40000-word-history-of-googles-mobile-os/19/ - -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) 校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[1]:http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/05/hands-on-grooving-on-the-go-with-impressive-google-music-beta/ -[2]:http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/32.png -[a]:http://arstechnica.com/author/ronamadeo -[t]:https://twitter.com/RonAmadeo \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/talk/The history of Android/20 - The history of Android.md b/sources/talk/The history of Android/20 - The history of Android.md index 30db4ce5c2..75c89a1abc 100644 --- a/sources/talk/The history of Android/20 - The history of Android.md +++ b/sources/talk/The history of Android/20 - The history of Android.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +alim0x translating + The history of Android ================================================================================ ![Another Market design that was nothing like the old one. This lineup shows the categories page, featured, a top apps list, and an app page.](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/market-pages.png) @@ -90,4 +92,4 @@ via: http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/06/building-android-a-40000-word-histor [1]:http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/02/near-field-communications-a-technology-primer/ [2]:http://arstechnica.com/business/2012/01/google-launches-style-guide-for-android-developers/ [a]:http://arstechnica.com/author/ronamadeo -[t]:https://twitter.com/RonAmadeo \ No newline at end of file +[t]:https://twitter.com/RonAmadeo diff --git a/sources/tech/20150205 Install Strongswan - A Tool to Setup IPsec Based VPN in Linux.md b/sources/tech/20150205 Install Strongswan - A Tool to Setup IPsec Based VPN in Linux.md deleted file mode 100644 index cd9ee43213..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/20150205 Install Strongswan - A Tool to Setup IPsec Based VPN in Linux.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,114 +0,0 @@ -wyangsun translating -Install Strongswan - A Tool to Setup IPsec Based VPN in Linux -================================================================================ -IPsec is a standard which provides the security at network layer. It consist of authentication header (AH) and encapsulating security payload (ESP) components. AH provides the packet Integrity and confidentiality is provided by ESP component . IPsec ensures the following security features at network layer. - -- Confidentiality -- Integrity of packet -- Source Non. Repudiation -- Replay attack protection - -[Strongswan][1] is an open source implementation of IPsec protocol and Strongswan stands for Strong Secure WAN (StrongS/WAN). It supports the both version of automatic keying exchange in IPsec VPN (Internet keying Exchange (IKE) V1 & V2). - -Strongswan basically provides the automatic keying sharing between two nodes/gateway of the VPN and after that it uses the Linux Kernel implementation of IPsec (AH & ESP). Key shared using IKE mechanism is further used in the ESP for the encryption of data. In IKE phase, strongswan uses the encryption algorithms (AES,SHA etc) of OpenSSL and other crypto libraries. However, ESP component of IPsec uses the security algorithm which are implemented in the Linux Kernel. The main features of Strongswan are given below. - -- 509 certificates or pre-shared keys based Authentication -- Support of IKEv1 and IKEv2 key exchange protocols -- Optional built-in integrity and crypto tests for plugins and libraries -- Support of elliptic curve DH groups and ECDSA certificates -- Storage of RSA private keys and certificates on a smartcard. - -It can be used in the client / server (road warrior) and gateway to gateway scenarios. - -### How to Install ### - -Almost all Linux distro’s, supports the binary package of Strongswan. In this tutorial, we will install the strongswan from binary package and also the compilation of strongswan source code with desirable features. - -### Using binary package ### - -Strongswan can be installed using following command on Ubuntu 14.04 LTS . - - $sudo aptitude install strongswan - -![Installation of strongswan](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/strongswan-binary.png) - -The global configuration (strongswan.conf) file and ipsec configuration (ipsec.conf/ipsec.secrets) files of strongswan are under /etc/ directory. - -### Pre-requisite for strongswan source compilation & installation ### - -- GMP (Mathematical/Precision Library used by strongswan) -- OpenSSL (Crypto Algorithms from this library) -- PKCS (1,7,8,11,12)(Certificate encoding and smart card integration with Strongswan ) - -#### Procedure #### - -**1)** Go to /usr/src/ directory using following command in the terminal. - - $cd /usr/src - -**2)** Download the source code from strongswan site suing following command - - $sudo wget http://download.strongswan.org/strongswan-5.2.1.tar.gz - -(strongswan-5.2.1.tar.gz is the latest version.) - -![Downloading software](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/download_strongswan.png) - -**3)** Extract the downloaded software and go inside it using following command. - - $sudo tar –xvzf strongswan-5.2.1.tar.gz; cd strongswan-5.2.1 - -**4)** Configure the strongswan as per desired options using configure command. - - ./configure --prefix=/usr/local -–enable-pkcs11 -–enable-openssl - -![checking packages for strongswan](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/strongswan-configure.png) - -If GMP library is not installed, then configure script will generate following error. - -![GMP library error](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-error.png) - -Therefore, first of all, install the GMP library using following command and then run the configure script. - -![gmp installation](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-installation1.png) - -However, if GMP is already installed and still above error exists then create soft link of libgmp.so library at /usr/lib , /lib/, /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/ paths in Ubuntu using following command. - - $ sudo ln -s /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgmp.so.10.1.3 /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgmp.so - -![softlink of libgmp.so library](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/softlink.png) - -After the creation of libgmp.so softlink, again run the ./configure script and it may find the gmp library. However, it may generate another error of gmp header file which is shown the following figure. - -![GMP header file issu](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-header.png) - -Install the libgmp-dev package using following command for the solution of above error. - - $sudo aptitude install libgmp-dev - -![Installation of Development library of GMP](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/gmp-dev.png) - -After installation of development package of gmp library, again run the configure script and if it does not produce any error, then the following output will be displayed. - -![Output of Configure scirpt](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/successful-run.png) - -Type the following commands for the compilation and installation of strongswan. - - $ sudo make ; sudo make install - -After the installation of strongswan , the Global configuration (strongswan.conf) and ipsec policy/secret configuration files (ipsec.conf/ipsec.secretes) are placed in **/usr/local/etc** directory. - -Strongswan can be used as tunnel or transport mode depends on our security need. It provides well known site-2-site and road warrior VPNs. It can be use easily with Cisco,Juniper devices. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://linoxide.com/security/install-strongswan/ - -作者：[nido][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/naveeda/ -[1]:https://www.strongswan.org/ diff --git a/sources/tech/20150728 Process of the Linux kernel building.md b/sources/tech/20150728 Process of the Linux kernel building.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1c03ebbe72..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/20150728 Process of the Linux kernel building.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,676 +0,0 @@ -Translating by Ezio - -Process of the Linux kernel building -================================================================================ -Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -I will not tell you how to build and install custom Linux kernel on your machine, you can find many many [resources](https://encrypted.google.com/search?q=building+linux+kernel#q=building+linux+kernel+from+source+code) that will help you to do it. Instead, we will know what does occur when you are typed `make` in the directory with Linux kernel source code in this part. When I just started to learn source code of the Linux kernel, the [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) file was a first file that I've opened. And it was scary :) This [makefile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_%28software%29) contains `1591` lines of code at the time when I wrote this part and it was [third](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/commit/52721d9d3334c1cb1f76219a161084094ec634dc) release candidate. - -This makefile is the the top makefile in the Linux kernel source code and kernel build starts here. Yes, it is big, but moreover, if you've read the source code of the Linux kernel you can noted that all directories with a source code has an own makefile. Of course it is not real to describe how each source files compiled and linked. So, we will see compilation only for the standard case. You will not find here building of the kernel's documentation, cleaning of the kernel source code, [tags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctags) generation, [cross-compilation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_compiler) related stuff and etc. We will start from the `make` execution with the standard kernel configuration file and will finish with the building of the [bzImage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux#bzImage). - -It would be good if you're already familiar with the [make](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_%28software%29) util, but I will anyway try to describe all code that will be in this part. - -So let's start. - -Preparation before the kernel compilation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -There are many things to preparate before the kernel compilation will be started. The main point here is to find and configure -the type of compilation, to parse command line arguments that are passed to the `make` util and etc. So let's dive into the top `Makefile` of the Linux kernel. - -The Linux kernel top `Makefile` is responsible for building two major products: [vmlinux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux) (the resident kernel image) and the modules (any module files). The [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) of the Linux kernel starts from the definition of the following variables: - -```Makefile -VERSION = 4 -PATCHLEVEL = 2 -SUBLEVEL = 0 -EXTRAVERSION = -rc3 -NAME = Hurr durr I'ma sheep -``` - -These variables determine the current version of the Linux kernel and are used in the different places, for example in the forming of the `KERNELVERSION` variable: - -```Makefile -KERNELVERSION = $(VERSION)$(if $(PATCHLEVEL),.$(PATCHLEVEL)$(if $(SUBLEVEL),.$(SUBLEVEL)))$(EXTRAVERSION) -``` - -After this we can see a couple of the `ifeq` condition that check some of the parameters passed to `make`. The Linux kernel `makefiles` provides a special `make help` target that prints all available targets and some of the command line arguments that can be passed to `make`. For example: `make V=1` - provides verbose builds. The first `ifeq` condition checks if the `V=n` option is passed to make: - -```Makefile -ifeq ("$(origin V)", "command line") - KBUILD_VERBOSE = $(V) -endif -ifndef KBUILD_VERBOSE - KBUILD_VERBOSE = 0 -endif - -ifeq ($(KBUILD_VERBOSE),1) - quiet = - Q = -else - quiet=quiet_ - Q = @ -endif - -export quiet Q KBUILD_VERBOSE -``` - -If this option is passed to `make` we set the `KBUILD_VERBOSE` variable to the value of the `V` option. Otherwise we set the `KBUILD_VERBOSE` variable to zero. After this we check value of the `KBUILD_VERBOSE` variable and set values of the `quiet` and `Q` variables depends on the `KBUILD_VERBOSE` value. The `@` symbols suppress the output of the command and if it will be set before a command we will see something like this: `CC scripts/mod/empty.o` instead of the `Compiling .... scripts/mod/empty.o`. In the end we just export all of these variables. The next `ifeq` statement checks that `O=/dir` option was passed to the `make`. This option allows to locate all output files in the given `dir`: - -```Makefile -ifeq ($(KBUILD_SRC),) - -ifeq ("$(origin O)", "command line") - KBUILD_OUTPUT := $(O) -endif - -ifneq ($(KBUILD_OUTPUT),) -saved-output := $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) -KBUILD_OUTPUT := $(shell mkdir -p $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) && cd $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) \ - && /bin/pwd) -$(if $(KBUILD_OUTPUT),, \ - $(error failed to create output directory "$(saved-output)")) - -sub-make: FORCE - $(Q)$(MAKE) -C $(KBUILD_OUTPUT) KBUILD_SRC=$(CURDIR) \ - -f $(CURDIR)/Makefile $(filter-out _all sub-make,$(MAKECMDGOALS)) - -skip-makefile := 1 -endif # ifneq ($(KBUILD_OUTPUT),) -endif # ifeq ($(KBUILD_SRC),) -``` - -We check the `KBUILD_SRC` that represent top directory of the source code of the linux kernel and if it is empty (it is empty every time while makefile executes first time) and the set the `KBUILD_OUTPUT` variable to the value that passed with the `O` option (if this option was passed). In the next step we check this `KBUILD_OUTPUT` variable and if we set it, we do following things: - -* Store value of the `KBUILD_OUTPUT` in the temp `saved-output` variable; -* Try to create given output directory; -* Check that directory created, in other way print error; -* If custom output directory created sucessfully, execute `make` again with the new directory (see `-C` option). - -The next `ifeq` statements checks that `C` or `M` options was passed to the make: - -```Makefile -ifeq ("$(origin C)", "command line") - KBUILD_CHECKSRC = $(C) -endif -ifndef KBUILD_CHECKSRC - KBUILD_CHECKSRC = 0 -endif - -ifeq ("$(origin M)", "command line") - KBUILD_EXTMOD := $(M) -endif -``` - -The first `C` option tells to the `makefile` that need to check all `c` source code with a tool provided by the `$CHECK` environment variable, by default it is [sparse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse). The second `M` option provides build for the external modules (will not see this case in this part). As we set this variables we make a check of the `KBUILD_SRC` variable and if it is not set we set `srctree` variable to `.`: - -```Makefile -ifeq ($(KBUILD_SRC),) - srctree := . -endif - -objtree := . -src := $(srctree) -obj := $(objtree) - -export srctree objtree VPATH -``` - -That tells to `Makefile` that source tree of the Linux kernel will be in the current directory where `make` command was executed. After this we set `objtree` and other variables to this directory and export these variables. The next step is the getting value for the `SUBARCH` variable that will represent tewhat the underlying archicecture is: - -```Makefile -SUBARCH := $(shell uname -m | sed -e s/i.86/x86/ -e s/x86_64/x86/ \ - -e s/sun4u/sparc64/ \ - -e s/arm.*/arm/ -e s/sa110/arm/ \ - -e s/s390x/s390/ -e s/parisc64/parisc/ \ - -e s/ppc.*/powerpc/ -e s/mips.*/mips/ \ - -e s/sh[234].*/sh/ -e s/aarch64.*/arm64/ ) -``` - -As you can see it executes [uname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uname) utils that prints information about machine, operating system and architecture. As it will get output of the `uname` util, it will parse it and assign to the `SUBARCH` variable. As we got `SUBARCH`, we set the `SRCARCH` variable that provides directory of the certain architecture and `hfr-arch` that provides directory for the header files: - -```Makefile -ifeq ($(ARCH),i386) - SRCARCH := x86 -endif -ifeq ($(ARCH),x86_64) - SRCARCH := x86 -endif - -hdr-arch := $(SRCARCH) -``` - -Note that `ARCH` is the alias for the `SUBARCH`. In the next step we set the `KCONFIG_CONFIG` variable that represents path to the kernel configuration file and if it was not set before, it will be `.config` by default: - -```Makefile -KCONFIG_CONFIG ?= .config -export KCONFIG_CONFIG -``` - -and the [shell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_%28computing%29) that will be used during kernel compilation: - -```Makefile -CONFIG_SHELL := $(shell if [ -x "$$BASH" ]; then echo $$BASH; \ - else if [ -x /bin/bash ]; then echo /bin/bash; \ - else echo sh; fi ; fi) -``` - -The next set of variables related to the compiler that will be used during Linux kernel compilation. We set the host compilers for the `c` and `c++` and flags for it: - -```Makefile -HOSTCC = gcc -HOSTCXX = g++ -HOSTCFLAGS = -Wall -Wmissing-prototypes -Wstrict-prototypes -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -std=gnu89 -HOSTCXXFLAGS = -O2 -``` - -Next we will meet the `CC` variable that represent compiler too, so why do we need in the `HOST*` variables? The `CC` is the target compiler that will be used during kernel compilation, but `HOSTCC` will be used during compilation of the set of the `host` programs (we will see it soon). After this we can see definition of the `KBUILD_MODULES` and `KBUILD_BUILTIN` variables that are used for the determination of the what to compile (kernel, modules or both): - -```Makefile -KBUILD_MODULES := -KBUILD_BUILTIN := 1 - -ifeq ($(MAKECMDGOALS),modules) - KBUILD_BUILTIN := $(if $(CONFIG_MODVERSIONS),1) -endif -``` - -Here we can see definition of these variables and the value of the `KBUILD_BUILTIN` will depens on the `CONFIG_MODVERSIONS` kernel configuration parameter if we pass only `modules` to the `make`. The next step is including of the: - -```Makefile -include scripts/Kbuild.include -``` - -`kbuild` file. The [Kbuild](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/kbuild.txt) or `Kernel Build System` is the special infrastructure to manage building of the kernel and its modules. The `kbuild` files has the same syntax that makefiles. The [scripts/Kbuild.include](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/Kbuild.include) file provides some generic definitions for the `kbuild` system. As we included this `kbuild` files we can see definition of the variables that are related to the different tools that will be used during kernel and modules compilation (like linker, compilers, utils from the [binutils](http://www.gnu.org/software/binutils/) and etc...): - -```Makefile -AS = $(CROSS_COMPILE)as -LD = $(CROSS_COMPILE)ld -CC = $(CROSS_COMPILE)gcc -CPP = $(CC) -E -AR = $(CROSS_COMPILE)ar -NM = $(CROSS_COMPILE)nm -STRIP = $(CROSS_COMPILE)strip -OBJCOPY = $(CROSS_COMPILE)objcopy -OBJDUMP = $(CROSS_COMPILE)objdump -AWK = awk -... -... -... -``` - -After definition of these variables we define two variables: `USERINCLUDE` and `LINUXINCLUDE`. They will contain paths of the directories with headers (public for users in the first case and for kernel in the second case): - -```Makefile -USERINCLUDE := \ - -I$(srctree)/arch/$(hdr-arch)/include/uapi \ - -Iarch/$(hdr-arch)/include/generated/uapi \ - -I$(srctree)/include/uapi \ - -Iinclude/generated/uapi \ - -include $(srctree)/include/linux/kconfig.h - -LINUXINCLUDE := \ - -I$(srctree)/arch/$(hdr-arch)/include \ - ... -``` - -And the standard flags for the C compiler: - -```Makefile -KBUILD_CFLAGS := -Wall -Wundef -Wstrict-prototypes -Wno-trigraphs \ - -fno-strict-aliasing -fno-common \ - -Werror-implicit-function-declaration \ - -Wno-format-security \ - -std=gnu89 -``` - -It is the not last compiler flags, they can be updated by the other makefiles (for example kbuilds from `arch/`). After all of these, all variables will be exported to be available in the other makefiles. The following two the `RCS_FIND_IGNORE` and the `RCS_TAR_IGNORE` variables will contain files that will be ignored in the version control system: - -```Makefile -export RCS_FIND_IGNORE := \( -name SCCS -o -name BitKeeper -o -name .svn -o \ - -name CVS -o -name .pc -o -name .hg -o -name .git \) \ - -prune -o -export RCS_TAR_IGNORE := --exclude SCCS --exclude BitKeeper --exclude .svn \ - --exclude CVS --exclude .pc --exclude .hg --exclude .git -``` - -That's all. We have finished with the all preparations, next point is the building of `vmlinux`. - -Directly to the kernel build --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -As we have finished all preparations, next step in the root makefile is related to the kernel build. Before this moment we will not see in the our terminal after the execution of the `make` command. But now first steps of the compilation are started. In this moment we need to go on the [598](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile#L598) line of the Linux kernel top makefile and we will see `vmlinux` target there: - -```Makefile -all: vmlinux - include arch/$(SRCARCH)/Makefile -``` - -Don't worry that we have missed many lines in Makefile that are placed after `export RCS_FIND_IGNORE.....` and before `all: vmlinux.....`. This part of the makefile is responsible for the `make *.config` targets and as I wrote in the beginning of this part we will see only building of the kernel in a general way. - -The `all:` target is the default when no target is given on the command line. You can see here that we include architecture specific makefile there (in our case it will be [arch/x86/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile)). From this moment we will continue from this makefile. As we can see `all` target depends on the `vmlinux` target that defined a little lower in the top makefile: - -```Makefile -vmlinux: scripts/link-vmlinux.sh $(vmlinux-deps) FORCE -``` - -The `vmlinux` is is the Linux kernel in an statically linked executable file format. The [scripts/link-vmlinux.sh](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/link-vmlinux.sh) script links combines different compiled subsystems into vmlinux. The second target is the `vmlinux-deps` that defined as: - -```Makefile -vmlinux-deps := $(KBUILD_LDS) $(KBUILD_VMLINUX_INIT) $(KBUILD_VMLINUX_MAIN) -``` - -and consists from the set of the `built-in.o` from the each top directory of the Linux kernel. Later, when we will go through all directories in the Linux kernel, the `Kbuild` will compile all the `$(obj-y)` files. It then calls `$(LD) -r` to merge these files into one `built-in.o` file. For this moment we have no `vmlinux-deps`, so the `vmlinux` target will not be executed now. For me `vmlinux-deps` contains following files: - -``` -arch/x86/kernel/vmlinux.lds arch/x86/kernel/head_64.o -arch/x86/kernel/head64.o arch/x86/kernel/head.o -init/built-in.o usr/built-in.o -arch/x86/built-in.o kernel/built-in.o -mm/built-in.o fs/built-in.o -ipc/built-in.o security/built-in.o -crypto/built-in.o block/built-in.o -lib/lib.a arch/x86/lib/lib.a -lib/built-in.o arch/x86/lib/built-in.o -drivers/built-in.o sound/built-in.o -firmware/built-in.o arch/x86/pci/built-in.o -arch/x86/power/built-in.o arch/x86/video/built-in.o -net/built-in.o -``` - -The next target that can be executed is following: - -```Makefile -$(sort $(vmlinux-deps)): $(vmlinux-dirs) ; -$(vmlinux-dirs): prepare scripts - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=$@ -``` - -As we can see the `vmlinux-dirs` depends on the two targets: `prepare` and `scripts`. The first `prepare` defined in the top `Makefile` of the Linux kernel and executes three stages of preparations: - -```Makefile -prepare: prepare0 -prepare0: archprepare FORCE - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=. -archprepare: archheaders archscripts prepare1 scripts_basic - -prepare1: prepare2 $(version_h) include/generated/utsrelease.h \ - include/config/auto.conf - $(cmd_crmodverdir) -prepare2: prepare3 outputmakefile asm-generic -``` - -The first `prepare0` expands to the `archprepare` that exapnds to the `archheaders` and `archscripts` that defined in the `x86_64` specific [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile). Let's look on it. The `x86_64` specific makefile starts from the definition of the variables that are related to the archicteture-specific configs ([defconfig](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/arch/x86/configs) and etc.). After this it defines flags for the compiling of the [16-bit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode) code, calculating of the `BITS` variable that can be `32` for `i386` or `64` for the `x86_64` flags for the assembly source code, flags for the linker and many many more (all definitions you can find in the [arch/x86/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile)). The first target is `archheaders` in the makefile generates syscall table: - -```Makefile -archheaders: - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=arch/x86/entry/syscalls all -``` - -And the second target is `archscripts` in this makefile is: - -```Makefile -archscripts: scripts_basic - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=arch/x86/tools relocs -``` - -We can see that it depends on the `scripts_basic` target from the top [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile). At the first we can see the `scripts_basic` target that executes make for the [scripts/basic](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/basic/Makefile) makefile: - -```Maklefile -scripts_basic: - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=scripts/basic -``` - -The `scripts/basic/Makefile` contains targets for compilation of the two host programs: `fixdep` and `bin2`: - -```Makefile -hostprogs-y := fixdep -hostprogs-$(CONFIG_BUILD_BIN2C) += bin2c -always := $(hostprogs-y) - -$(addprefix $(obj)/,$(filter-out fixdep,$(always))): $(obj)/fixdep -``` - -First program is `fixdep` - optimizes list of dependencies generated by the [gcc](https://gcc.gnu.org/) that tells make when to remake a source code file. The second program is `bin2c` depends on the value of the `CONFIG_BUILD_BIN2C` kernel configuration option and very little C program that allows to convert a binary on stdin to a C include on stdout. You can note here strange notation: `hostprogs-y` and etc. This notation is used in the all `kbuild` files and more about it you can read in the [documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/makefiles.txt). In our case the `hostprogs-y` tells to the `kbuild` that there is one host program named `fixdep` that will be built from the will be built from `fixdep.c` that located in the same directory that `Makefile`. The first output after we will execute `make` command in our terminal will be result of this `kbuild` file: - -``` -$ make - HOSTCC scripts/basic/fixdep -``` - -As `script_basic` target was executed, the `archscripts` target will execute `make` for the [arch/x86/tools](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/tools/Makefile) makefile with the `relocs` target: - -```Makefile -$(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=arch/x86/tools relocs -``` - -The `relocs_32.c` and the `relocs_64.c` will be compiled that will contain [relocation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relocation_%28computing%29) information and we will see it in the `make` output: - -```Makefile - HOSTCC arch/x86/tools/relocs_32.o - HOSTCC arch/x86/tools/relocs_64.o - HOSTCC arch/x86/tools/relocs_common.o - HOSTLD arch/x86/tools/relocs -``` - -There is checking of the `version.h` after compiling of the `relocs.c`: - -```Makefile -$(version_h): $(srctree)/Makefile FORCE - $(call filechk,version.h) - $(Q)rm -f $(old_version_h) -``` - -We can see it in the output: - -``` -CHK include/config/kernel.release -``` - -and the building of the `generic` assembly headers with the `asm-generic` target from the `arch/x86/include/generated/asm` that generated in the top Makefile of the Linux kernel. After the `asm-generic` target the `archprepare` will be done, so the `prepare0` target will be executed. As I wrote above: - -```Makefile -prepare0: archprepare FORCE - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=. -``` - -Note on the `build`. It defined in the [scripts/Kbuild.include](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/Kbuild.include) and looks like this: - -```Makefile -build := -f $(srctree)/scripts/Makefile.build obj -``` - -or in our case it is current source directory - `.`: - -```Makefile -$(Q)$(MAKE) -f $(srctree)/scripts/Makefile.build obj=. -``` - -The [scripts/Makefile.build](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/Makefile.build) tries to find the `Kbuild` file by the given directory via the `obj` parameter, include this `Kbuild` files: - -```Makefile -include $(kbuild-file) -``` - -and build targets from it. In our case `.` contains the [Kbuild](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Kbuild) file that generates the `kernel/bounds.s` and the `arch/x86/kernel/asm-offsets.s`. After this the `prepare` target finished to work. The `vmlinux-dirs` also depends on the second target - `scripts` that compiles following programs: `file2alias`, `mk_elfconfig`, `modpost` and etc... After scripts/host-programs compilation our `vmlinux-dirs` target can be executed. First of all let's try to understand what does `vmlinux-dirs` contain. For my case it contains paths of the following kernel directories: - -``` -init usr arch/x86 kernel mm fs ipc security crypto block -drivers sound firmware arch/x86/pci arch/x86/power -arch/x86/video net lib arch/x86/lib -``` - -We can find definition of the `vmlinux-dirs` in the top [Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) of the Linux kernel: - -```Makefile -vmlinux-dirs := $(patsubst %/,%,$(filter %/, $(init-y) $(init-m) \ - $(core-y) $(core-m) $(drivers-y) $(drivers-m) \ - $(net-y) $(net-m) $(libs-y) $(libs-m))) - -init-y := init/ -drivers-y := drivers/ sound/ firmware/ -net-y := net/ -libs-y := lib/ -... -... -... -``` - -Here we remove the `/` symbol from the each directory with the help of the `patsubst` and `filter` functions and put it to the `vmlinux-dirs`. So we have list of directories in the `vmlinux-dirs` and the following code: - -```Makefile -$(vmlinux-dirs): prepare scripts - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=$@ -``` - -The `$@` represents `vmlinux-dirs` here that means that it will go recursively over all directories from the `vmlinux-dirs` and its internal directories (depens on configuration) and will execute `make` in there. We can see it in the output: - -``` - CC init/main.o - CHK include/generated/compile.h - CC init/version.o - CC init/do_mounts.o - ... - CC arch/x86/crypto/glue_helper.o - AS arch/x86/crypto/aes-x86_64-asm_64.o - CC arch/x86/crypto/aes_glue.o - ... - AS arch/x86/entry/entry_64.o - AS arch/x86/entry/thunk_64.o - CC arch/x86/entry/syscall_64.o -``` - -Source code in each directory will be compiled and linked to the `built-in.o`: - -``` -$ find . -name built-in.o -./arch/x86/crypto/built-in.o -./arch/x86/crypto/sha-mb/built-in.o -./arch/x86/net/built-in.o -./init/built-in.o -./usr/built-in.o -... -... -``` - -Ok, all buint-in.o(s) built, now we can back to the `vmlinux` target. As you remember, the `vmlinux` target is in the top Makefile of the Linux kernel. Before the linking of the `vmlinux` it builds [samples](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/samples), [Documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/Documentation) and etc., but I will not describe it in this part as I wrote in the beginning of this part. - -```Makefile -vmlinux: scripts/link-vmlinux.sh $(vmlinux-deps) FORCE - ... - ... - +$(call if_changed,link-vmlinux) -``` - -As you can see main purpose of it is a call of the [scripts/link-vmlinux.sh](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/scripts/link-vmlinux.sh) script is linking of the all `built-in.o`(s) to the one statically linked executable and creation of the [System.map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System.map). In the end we will see following output: - -``` - LINK vmlinux - LD vmlinux.o - MODPOST vmlinux.o - GEN .version - CHK include/generated/compile.h - UPD include/generated/compile.h - CC init/version.o - LD init/built-in.o - KSYM .tmp_kallsyms1.o - KSYM .tmp_kallsyms2.o - LD vmlinux - SORTEX vmlinux - SYSMAP System.map -``` - -and `vmlinux` and `System.map` in the root of the Linux kernel source tree: - -``` -$ ls vmlinux System.map -System.map vmlinux -``` - -That's all, `vmlinux` is ready. The next step is creation of the [bzImage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux#bzImage). - -Building bzImage --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -The `bzImage` is the compressed Linux kernel image. We can get it with the execution of the `make bzImage` after the `vmlinux` built. In other way we can just execute `make` without arguments and will get `bzImage` anyway because it is default image: - -```Makefile -all: bzImage -``` - -in the [arch/x86/kernel/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile). Let's look on this target, it will help us to understand how this image builds. As I already said the `bzImage` target defined in the [arch/x86/kernel/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/Makefile) and looks like this: - -```Makefile -bzImage: vmlinux - $(Q)$(MAKE) $(build)=$(boot) $(KBUILD_IMAGE) - $(Q)mkdir -p $(objtree)/arch/$(UTS_MACHINE)/boot - $(Q)ln -fsn ../../x86/boot/bzImage $(objtree)/arch/$(UTS_MACHINE)/boot/$@ -``` - -We can see here, that first of all called `make` for the boot directory, in our case it is: - -```Makefile -boot := arch/x86/boot -``` - -The main goal now to build source code in the `arch/x86/boot` and `arch/x86/boot/compressed` directories, build `setup.bin` and `vmlinux.bin`, and build the `bzImage` from they in the end. First target in the [arch/x86/boot/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/Makefile) is the `$(obj)/setup.elf`: - -```Makefile -$(obj)/setup.elf: $(src)/setup.ld $(SETUP_OBJS) FORCE - $(call if_changed,ld) -``` - -We already have the `setup.ld` linker script in the `arch/x86/boot` directory and the `SETUP_OBJS` expands to the all source files from the `boot` directory. We can see first output: - -```Makefile - AS arch/x86/boot/bioscall.o - CC arch/x86/boot/cmdline.o - AS arch/x86/boot/copy.o - HOSTCC arch/x86/boot/mkcpustr - CPUSTR arch/x86/boot/cpustr.h - CC arch/x86/boot/cpu.o - CC arch/x86/boot/cpuflags.o - CC arch/x86/boot/cpucheck.o - CC arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.o - CC arch/x86/boot/edd.o -``` - -The next source code file is the [arch/x86/boot/header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S), but we can't build it now because this target depends on the following two header files: - -```Makefile -$(obj)/header.o: $(obj)/voffset.h $(obj)/zoffset.h -``` - -The first is `voffset.h` generated by the `sed` script that gets two addresses from the `vmlinux` with the `nm` util: - -```C -#define VO__end 0xffffffff82ab0000 -#define VO__text 0xffffffff81000000 -``` - -They are start and end of the kernel. The second is `zoffset.h` depens on the `vmlinux` target from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile): - -```Makefile -$(obj)/zoffset.h: $(obj)/compressed/vmlinux FORCE - $(call if_changed,zoffset) -``` - -The `$(obj)/compressed/vmlinux` target depends on the `vmlinux-objs-y` that compiles source code files from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/arch/x86/boot/compressed) directory and generates `vmlinux.bin`, `vmlinux.bin.bz2`, and compiles programm - `mkpiggy`. We can see this in the output: - -```Makefile - LDS arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds - AS arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.o - CC arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.o - CC arch/x86/boot/compressed/string.o - CC arch/x86/boot/compressed/cmdline.o - OBJCOPY arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.bin - BZIP2 arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.bin.bz2 - HOSTCC arch/x86/boot/compressed/mkpiggy -``` - -Where the `vmlinux.bin` is the `vmlinux` with striped debuging information and comments and the `vmlinux.bin.bz2` compressed `vmlinux.bin.all` + `u32` size of `vmlinux.bin.all`. The `vmlinux.bin.all` is `vmlinux.bin + vmlinux.relocs`, where `vmlinux.relocs` is the `vmlinux` that was handled by the `relocs` program (see above). As we got these files, the `piggy.S` assembly files will be generated with the `mkpiggy` program and compiled: - -```Makefile - MKPIGGY arch/x86/boot/compressed/piggy.S - AS arch/x86/boot/compressed/piggy.o -``` - -This assembly files will contain computed offset from a compressed kernel. After this we can see that `zoffset` generated: - -```Makefile - ZOFFSET arch/x86/boot/zoffset.h -``` - -As the `zoffset.h` and the `voffset.h` are generated, compilation of the source code files from the [arch/x86/boot](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/tree/master/arch/x86/boot/) can be continued: - -```Makefile - AS arch/x86/boot/header.o - CC arch/x86/boot/main.o - CC arch/x86/boot/mca.o - CC arch/x86/boot/memory.o - CC arch/x86/boot/pm.o - AS arch/x86/boot/pmjump.o - CC arch/x86/boot/printf.o - CC arch/x86/boot/regs.o - CC arch/x86/boot/string.o - CC arch/x86/boot/tty.o - CC arch/x86/boot/video.o - CC arch/x86/boot/video-mode.o - CC arch/x86/boot/video-vga.o - CC arch/x86/boot/video-vesa.o - CC arch/x86/boot/video-bios.o -``` - -As all source code files will be compiled, they will be linked to the `setup.elf`: - -```Makefile - LD arch/x86/boot/setup.elf -``` - -or: - -``` -ld -m elf_x86_64 -T arch/x86/boot/setup.ld arch/x86/boot/a20.o arch/x86/boot/bioscall.o arch/x86/boot/cmdline.o arch/x86/boot/copy.o arch/x86/boot/cpu.o arch/x86/boot/cpuflags.o arch/x86/boot/cpucheck.o arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.o arch/x86/boot/edd.o arch/x86/boot/header.o arch/x86/boot/main.o arch/x86/boot/mca.o arch/x86/boot/memory.o arch/x86/boot/pm.o arch/x86/boot/pmjump.o arch/x86/boot/printf.o arch/x86/boot/regs.o arch/x86/boot/string.o arch/x86/boot/tty.o arch/x86/boot/video.o arch/x86/boot/video-mode.o arch/x86/boot/version.o arch/x86/boot/video-vga.o arch/x86/boot/video-vesa.o arch/x86/boot/video-bios.o -o arch/x86/boot/setup.elf -``` - -The last two things is the creation of the `setup.bin` that will contain compiled code from the `arch/x86/boot/*` directory: - -``` -objcopy -O binary arch/x86/boot/setup.elf arch/x86/boot/setup.bin -``` - -and the creation of the `vmlinux.bin` from the `vmlinux`: - -``` -objcopy -O binary -R .note -R .comment -S arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux arch/x86/boot/vmlinux.bin -``` - -In the end we compile host program: [arch/x86/boot/tools/build.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/tools/build.c) that will create our `bzImage` from the `setup.bin` and the `vmlinux.bin`: - -``` -arch/x86/boot/tools/build arch/x86/boot/setup.bin arch/x86/boot/vmlinux.bin arch/x86/boot/zoffset.h arch/x86/boot/bzImage -``` - -Actually the `bzImage` is the concatenated `setup.bin` and the `vmlinux.bin`. In the end we will see the output which familiar to all who once build the Linux kernel from source: - -``` -Setup is 16268 bytes (padded to 16384 bytes). -System is 4704 kB -CRC 94a88f9a -Kernel: arch/x86/boot/bzImage is ready (#5) -``` - -That's all. - -Conclusion -================================================================================ - -It is the end of this part and here we saw all steps from the execution of the `make` command to the generation of the `bzImage`. I know, the Linux kernel makefiles and process of the Linux kernel building may seem confusing at first glance, but it is not so hard. Hope this part will help you to understand process of the Linux kernel building. - -Links -================================================================================ - -* [GNU make util](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_%28software%29) -* [Linux kernel top Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Makefile) -* [cross-compilation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_compiler) -* [Ctags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctags) -* [sparse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse) -* [bzImage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux#bzImage) -* [uname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uname) -* [shell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_%28computing%29) -* [Kbuild](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/kbuild.txt) -* [binutils](http://www.gnu.org/software/binutils/) -* [gcc](https://gcc.gnu.org/) -* [Documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/kbuild/makefiles.txt) -* [System.map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System.map) -* [Relocation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relocation_%28computing%29) - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/master/Misc/how_kernel_compiled.md - -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 diff --git a/sources/tech/20150813 Howto Run JBoss Data Virtualization GA with OData in Docker Container.md b/sources/tech/20150813 Howto Run JBoss Data Virtualization GA with OData in Docker Container.md deleted file mode 100644 index 007f16493b..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/20150813 Howto Run JBoss Data Virtualization GA with OData in Docker Container.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,102 +0,0 @@ -Howto Run JBoss Data Virtualization GA with OData in Docker Container -================================================================================ -Hi everyone, today we'll learn how to run JBoss Data Virtualization 6.0.0.GA with OData in a Docker Container. JBoss Data Virtualization is a data supply and integration solution platform that transforms various scatered multiple sources data, treats them as single source and delivers the required data into actionable information at business speed to any applications or users. JBoss Data Virtualization can help us easily combine and transform data into reusable business friendly data models and make unified data easily consumable through open standard interfaces. It offers comprehensive data abstraction, federation, integration, transformation, and delivery capabilities to combine data from one or multiple sources into reusable for agile data utilization and sharing.For more information about JBoss Data Virtualization, we can check out [its official page][1]. Docker is an open source platform that provides an open platform to pack, ship and run any application as a lightweight container. Running JBoss Data Virtualization with OData in Docker Container makes us easy to handle and launch. - -Here are some easy to follow tutorial on how we can run JBoss Data Virtualization with OData in Docker Container. - -### 1. Cloning the Repository ### - -First of all, we'll wanna clone the repository of OData with Data Virtualization ie [https://github.com/jbossdemocentral/dv-odata-docker-integration-demo][2] using git command. As we have an Ubuntu 15.04 distribution of linux running in our machine. We'll need to install git initially using apt-get command. - - # apt-get install git - -Then after installing git, we'll wanna clone the repository by running the command below. - - # git clone https://github.com/jbossdemocentral/dv-odata-docker-integration-demo - - Cloning into 'dv-odata-docker-integration-demo'... - remote: Counting objects: 96, done. - remote: Total 96 (delta 0), reused 0 (delta 0), pack-reused 96 - Unpacking objects: 100% (96/96), done. - Checking connectivity... done. - -### 2. Downloading JBoss Data Virtualization Installer ### - -Now, we'll need to download JBoss Data Virtualization Installer from the Download Page ie [http://www.jboss.org/products/datavirt/download/][3] . After we download **jboss-dv-installer-6.0.0.GA-redhat-4.jar**, we'll need to keep it under the directory named **software**. - -### 3. Building the Docker Image ### - -Next, after we have downloaded the JBoss Data Virtualization installer, we'll then go for building the docker image using the Dockerfile and its resources we had just cloned from the repository. - - # cd dv-odata-docker-integration-demo/ - # docker build -t jbossdv600 . - - ... - Step 22 : USER jboss - ---> Running in 129f701febd0 - ---> 342941381e37 - Removing intermediate container 129f701febd0 - Step 23 : EXPOSE 8080 9990 31000 - ---> Running in 61e6d2c26081 - ---> 351159bb6280 - Removing intermediate container 61e6d2c26081 - Step 24 : CMD $JBOSS_HOME/bin/standalone.sh -c standalone.xml -b 0.0.0.0 -bmanagement 0.0.0.0 - ---> Running in a9fed69b3000 - ---> 407053dc470e - Removing intermediate container a9fed69b3000 - Successfully built 407053dc470e - -Note: Here, we assume that you have already installed docker and is running in your machine. - -### 4. Starting the Docker Container ### - -As we have built the Docker Image of JBoss Data Virtualization with oData, we'll now gonna run the docker container and expose its port with -P flag. To do so, we'll run the following command. - - # docker run -p 8080:8080 -d -t jbossdv600 - - 7765dee9cd59c49ca26850e88f97c21f46859d2dc1d74166353d898773214c9c - -### 5. Getting the Container IP ### - -After we have started the Docker Container, we'll wanna get the IP address of the running docker container. To do so, we'll run the docker inspect command followed by the running container id. - - # docker inspect <$containerID> - - ... - "NetworkSettings": { - "Bridge": "", - "EndpointID": "3e94c5900ac5954354a89591a8740ce2c653efde9232876bc94878e891564b39", - "Gateway": "172.17.42.1", - "GlobalIPv6Address": "", - "GlobalIPv6PrefixLen": 0, - "HairpinMode": false, - "IPAddress": "172.17.0.8", - "IPPrefixLen": 16, - "IPv6Gateway": "", - "LinkLocalIPv6Address": "", - "LinkLocalIPv6PrefixLen": 0, - -### 6. Web Interface ### - -Now, if everything went as expected as done above, we'll gonna see the login screen of JBoss Data Virtualization with oData when pointing our web browser to http://container-ip:8080/ and the JBoss Management from http://container-ip:9990. The Management credentials for username is admin and password is redhat1! whereas the Data virtualization credentials for username is user and password is user . After that, we can navigate the contents via the web interface. - -**Note**: It is strongly recommended to change the password as soon as possible after the first login. Thanks :) - -### Conclusion ### - -Finally we've successfully run Docker Container running JBoss Data Virtualization with OData Multisource Virtual Database. JBoss Data Virtualization is really an awesome platform for the virtualization of data from different multiple source and transform them into reusable business friendly data models and produces data easily consumable through open standard interfaces. The deployment of JBoss Data Virtualization with OData Multisource Virtual Database has been very easy, secure and fast to setup with the Docker Technology. If you have any questions, suggestions, feedback please write them in the comment box below so that we can improve or update our contents. Thank you ! Enjoy :-) - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://linoxide.com/linux-how-to/run-jboss-data-virtualization-ga-odata-docker-container/ - -作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/arunp/ -[1]:http://www.redhat.com/en/technologies/jboss-middleware/data-virtualization -[2]:https://github.com/jbossdemocentral/dv-odata-docker-integration-demo -[3]:http://www.jboss.org/products/datavirt/download/ diff --git a/sources/tech/20150813 Linux file system hierarchy v2.0.md b/sources/tech/20150813 Linux file system hierarchy v2.0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 23f70258b1..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/20150813 Linux file system hierarchy v2.0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,440 +0,0 @@ -translating by tnuoccalanosrep - -Linux file system hierarchy v2.0 -================================================================================ -What is a file in Linux? What is file system in Linux? Where are all the configuration files? Where do I keep my downloaded applications? Is there really a filesystem standard structure in Linux? Well, the above image explains Linux file system hierarchy in a very simple and non-complex way. It’s very useful when you’re looking for a configuration file or a binary file. I’ve added some explanation and examples below, but that’s TL;DR. - -Another issue is when you got configuration and binary files all over the system that creates inconsistency and if you’re a large organization or even an end user, it can compromise your system (binary talking with old lib files etc.) and when you do [security audit of your Linux system][1], you find it is vulnerable to different exploits. So keeping a clean operating system (no matter Windows or Linux) is important. - -### What is a file in Linux? ### - -A simple description of the UNIX system, also applicable to Linux, is this: - -> On a UNIX system, everything is a file; if something is not a file, it is a process. - -This statement is true because there are special files that are more than just files (named pipes and sockets, for instance), but to keep things simple, saying that everything is a file is an acceptable generalization. A Linux system, just like UNIX, makes no difference between a file and a directory, since a directory is just a file containing names of other files. Programs, services, texts, images, and so forth, are all files. Input and output devices, and generally all devices, are considered to be files, according to the system. - -![](http://www.blackmoreops.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-file-system-hierarchy-v2.0-2480px-blackMORE-Ops.png) - -- Version 2.0 – 17-06-2015 - - – Improved: Added title and version history. - - – Improved: Added /srv, /media and /proc. - - – Improved: Updated descriptions to reflect modern Linux File Systems. - - – Fixed: Multiple typo’s. - - – Fixed: Appearance and colour. -- Version 1.0 – 14-02-2015 - - – Created: Initial diagram. - - – Note: Discarded lowercase version. - -### Download Links ### - -Following are two links for download. If you need this in any other format, let me know and I will try to create that and upload it somewhere. - -- [Large (PNG) Format – 2480×1755 px – 184KB][2] -- [Largest (PDF) Format – 9919x7019 px – 1686KB][3] - -**Note**: PDF Format is best for printing and very high in quality - -### Linux file system description ### - -In order to manage all those files in an orderly fashion, man likes to think of them in an ordered tree-like structure on the hard disk, as we know from `MS-DOS` (Disk Operating System) for instance. The large branches contain more branches, and the branches at the end contain the tree’s leaves or normal files. For now we will use this image of the tree, but we will find out later why this is not a fully accurate image. - -注：表格 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
DirectoryDescription
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/
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Primary hierarchy root and root directory of the entire file system hierarchy.
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/bin
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Essential command binaries that need to be available in single user mode; for all users, e.g., cat, ls, cp.
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/boot
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Boot loader files, e.g., kernels, initrd.
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/dev
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Essential devices, e.g., /dev/null.
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/etc
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Host-specific system-wide configuration filesThere has been controversy over the meaning of the name itself. In early versions of the UNIX Implementation Document from Bell labs, /etc is referred to as the etcetera directory, as this directory historically held everything that did not belong elsewhere (however, the FHS restricts /etc to static configuration files and may not contain binaries). Since the publication of early documentation, the directory name has been re-designated in various ways. Recent interpretations include backronyms such as “Editable Text Configuration” or “Extended Tool Chest”.
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/opt
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Configuration files for add-on packages that are stored in /opt/.
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-
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/sgml
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Configuration files, such as catalogs, for software that processes SGML.
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/X11
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Configuration files for the X Window System, version 11.
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/xml
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Configuration files, such as catalogs, for software that processes XML.
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/home
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Users’ home directories, containing saved files, personal settings, etc.
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/lib
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Libraries essential for the binaries in /bin/ and /sbin/.
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/lib<qual>
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Alternate format essential libraries. Such directories are optional, but if they exist, they have some requirements.
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/media
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Mount points for removable media such as CD-ROMs (appeared in FHS-2.3).
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/mnt
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Temporarily mounted filesystems.
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/opt
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Optional application software packages.
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/proc
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Virtual filesystem providing process and kernel information as files. In Linux, corresponds to a procfs mount.
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/root
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Home directory for the root user.
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/sbin
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Essential system binaries, e.g., init, ip, mount.
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/srv
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Site-specific data which are served by the system.
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/tmp
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Temporary files (see also /var/tmp). Often not preserved between system reboots.
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/usr
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Secondary hierarchy for read-only user data; contains the majority of (multi-)user utilities and applications.
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/bin
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Non-essential command binaries (not needed in single user mode); for all users.
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/include
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Standard include files.
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/lib
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-
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Libraries for the binaries in /usr/bin/ and /usr/sbin/.
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/lib<qual>
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Alternate format libraries (optional).
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/local
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Tertiary hierarchy for local data, specific to this host. Typically has further subdirectories, e.g., bin/, lib/, share/.
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/sbin
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Non-essential system binaries, e.g., daemons for various network-services.
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/share
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Architecture-independent (shared) data.
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/src
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Source code, e.g., the kernel source code with its header files.
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-
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/X11R6
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X Window System, Version 11, Release 6.
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/var
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Variable files—files whose content is expected to continually change during normal operation of the system—such as logs, spool files, and temporary e-mail files.
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-
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/cache
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Application cache data. Such data are locally generated as a result of time-consuming I/O or calculation. The application must be able to regenerate or restore the data. The cached files can be deleted without loss of data.
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/lib
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State information. Persistent data modified by programs as they run, e.g., databases, packaging system metadata, etc.
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/lock
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Lock files. Files keeping track of resources currently in use.
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/log
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Log files. Various logs.
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/mail
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Users’ mailboxes.
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/opt
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Variable data from add-on packages that are stored in /opt/.
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/run
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Information about the running system since last boot, e.g., currently logged-in users and running daemons.
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/spool
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Spool for tasks waiting to be processed, e.g., print queues and outgoing mail queue.
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/mail
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Deprecated location for users’ mailboxes.
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/tmp
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Temporary files to be preserved between reboots.
- -### Types of files in Linux ### - -Most files are just files, called `regular` files; they contain normal data, for example text files, executable files or programs, input for or output from a program and so on. - -While it is reasonably safe to suppose that everything you encounter on a Linux system is a file, there are some exceptions. - -- `Directories`: files that are lists of other files. -- `Special files`: the mechanism used for input and output. Most special files are in `/dev`, we will discuss them later. -- `Links`: a system to make a file or directory visible in multiple parts of the system’s file tree. We will talk about links in detail. -- `(Domain) sockets`: a special file type, similar to TCP/IP sockets, providing inter-process networking protected by the file system’s access control. -- `Named pipes`: act more or less like sockets and form a way for processes to communicate with each other, without using network socket semantics. - -### File system in reality ### - -For most users and for most common system administration tasks, it is enough to accept that files and directories are ordered in a tree-like structure. The computer, however, doesn’t understand a thing about trees or tree-structures. - -Every partition has its own file system. By imagining all those file systems together, we can form an idea of the tree-structure of the entire system, but it is not as simple as that. In a file system, a file is represented by an `inode`, a kind of serial number containing information about the actual data that makes up the file: to whom this file belongs, and where is it located on the hard disk. - -Every partition has its own set of inodes; throughout a system with multiple partitions, files with the same inode number can exist. - -Each inode describes a data structure on the hard disk, storing the properties of a file, including the physical location of the file data. When a hard disk is initialized to accept data storage, usually during the initial system installation process or when adding extra disks to an existing system, a fixed number of inodes per partition is created. This number will be the maximum amount of files, of all types (including directories, special files, links etc.) that can exist at the same time on the partition. We typically count on having 1 inode per 2 to 8 kilobytes of storage.At the time a new file is created, it gets a free inode. In that inode is the following information: - -- Owner and group owner of the file. -- File type (regular, directory, …) -- Permissions on the file -- Date and time of creation, last read and change. -- Date and time this information has been changed in the inode. -- Number of links to this file (see later in this chapter). -- File size -- An address defining the actual location of the file data. - -The only information not included in an inode, is the file name and directory. These are stored in the special directory files. By comparing file names and inode numbers, the system can make up a tree-structure that the user understands. Users can display inode numbers using the -i option to ls. The inodes have their own separate space on the disk. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.blackmoreops.com/2015/06/18/linux-file-system-hierarchy-v2-0/ - -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[1]:http://www.blackmoreops.com/2015/02/15/in-light-of-recent-linux-exploits-linux-security-audit-is-a-must/ -[2]:http://www.blackmoreops.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-file-system-hierarchy-v2.0-2480px-blackMORE-Ops.png -[3]:http://www.blackmoreops.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-File-System-Hierarchy-blackMORE-Ops.pdf diff --git a/sources/tech/20150824 Fix No Bootable Device Found Error After Installing Ubuntu.md b/sources/tech/20150824 Fix No Bootable Device Found Error After Installing Ubuntu.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3281a51137..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/20150824 Fix No Bootable Device Found Error After Installing Ubuntu.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,97 +0,0 @@ -Fix No Bootable Device Found Error After Installing Ubuntu -================================================================================ -Usually, I dual boot Ubuntu and Windows but this time I decided to go for a clean Ubuntu installation i.e. eliminating Windows completely. After the clean install of Ubuntu, I ended up with a screen saying **no bootable device found** instead of the Grub screen. Clearly, the installation messed up with the UEFI boot settings. - -![No Bootable Device Found After Installing Ubuntu](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_1.jpg) - -I am going to show you how I fixed **no bootable device found error after installing Ubuntu in Acer laptops**. It is important that I mention that I am using Acer Aspire R13 because we have to change things in firmware settings and those settings might look different from manufacturer to manufacturer and from device to device. - -So before you go on trying the steps mentioned here, let’s first see what state my computer was in during this error: - -- My Acer Aspire R13 came preinstalled with Windows 8.1 and with UEFI boot manager -- Secure boot was not turned off (my laptop has just come from repair and the service guy had put the secure boot on again, I did not know until I ran up in the problem). You can read this post to know [how disable secure boot in Acer laptops][1] -- I chose to install Ubuntu by erasing everything i.e. existing Windows 8.1, various partitions etc. -- After installing Ubuntu, I saw no bootable device found error while booting from the hard disk. Booting from live USB worked just fine - -In my opinion, not disabling the secure boot was the reason of this error. However, I have no data to backup my claim. It is just a hunch. Interestingly, dual booting Windows and Linux often ends up in common Grub issues like these two: - -- [error: no such partition grub rescue][2] -- [Minimal BASH like line editing is supported][3] - -If you are in similar situation, you can try the fix which worked for me. - -### Fix no bootable device found error after installing Ubuntu ### - -Pardon me for poor quality images. My OnePlus camera seems to be not very happy with my laptop screen. - -#### Step 1 #### - -Turn the power off and boot into boot settings. I had to press Fn+F2 (to press F2 key) on Acer Aspire R13 quickly. You have to be very quick with it if you are using SSD hard disk because SSDs are very fast in booting. Depending upon your manufacturer/model, you might need to use Del or F10 or F12 keys. - -#### Step 2 #### - -In the boot settings, make sure that Secure Boot is turned on. It should be under the Boot tab. - -#### Step 3 #### - -Go to Security tab and look for “Select an UEFI file as trusted for executing” and click enter. - -![Fix no bootable device found ](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_2.jpg) - -Just for your information, what we are going to do here is to add the UEFI settings file (it was generated while Ubuntu installation) among the trusted UEFI boots in your device. If you remember, UEFI boot’s main aim is to provide security and since Secure Boot was not disabled (perhaps) the device did not intend to boot from the newly installed OS. Adding it as trusted, kind of whitelisting, will let the device boot from the Ubuntu UEFI file. - -#### Step 4 #### - -You should see your hard disk like HDD0 etc here. If you have more than one hard disk, I hope you remember where did you install Ubuntu. Press Enter here as well. - -![Fix no bootable device found in boot settings](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_3.jpg) - -#### Step 5 #### - -You should see here. Press enter. - -![Fix settings in UEFI](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_4.jpg) - -#### Step 6 #### - -You’ll see in next screen. Don’t get impatient, you are almost there - -![Fixing boot error after installing Ubuntu](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_5.jpg) - -#### Step 7 #### - -You’ll see shimx64.efi, grubx64.efi and MokManager.efi file here. The important one is shimx64.efi here. Select it and click enter. - - -![Fix no bootable device found](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_6.jpg) - -In next screen, type Yes and click enter. - -![No_Bootable_Device_Found_7](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_7.jpg) - -#### Step 8 #### - -Once we have added it as trused EFI file to be executed, press F10 to save and exit. - -![Save and exist firmware settings](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/No_Bootable_Device_Found_8.jpg) - -Reboot your system and this time you should be seeing the familiar Grub screen. Even if you do not see Grub screen, you should at least not be seeing “no bootable device found” screen anymore. You should be able to boot into Ubuntu. - -If your Grub screen was messed up after the fix but you got to login into it, you can reinstall Grub to boot into the familiar purple Grub screen of Ubuntu. - -I hope this tutorial helped you to fix no bootable device found error. Any questions or suggestions or a word of thanks is always welcomed. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://itsfoss.com/no-bootable-device-found-ubuntu/ - -作者：[Abhishek][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ -[1]:http://itsfoss.com/disable-secure-boot-in-acer/ -[2]:http://itsfoss.com/solve-error-partition-grub-rescue-ubuntu-linux/ -[3]:http://itsfoss.com/fix-minimal-bash-line-editing-supported-grub-error-linux/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20150824 How To Add Hindi And Devanagari Support In Antergos And Arch Linux.md b/sources/tech/20150824 How To Add Hindi And Devanagari Support In Antergos And Arch Linux.md deleted file mode 100644 index db36df66e6..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/20150824 How To Add Hindi And Devanagari Support In Antergos And Arch Linux.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ -How To Add Hindi And Devanagari Support In Antergos And Arch Linux -================================================================================ -![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Indian-languages.jpg) - -You might be knowing by now that I have been trying my hands on [Antergos Linux][1] lately. One of the first few things I noticed after installing [Antergos][2] was that **Hindi scripts were not displayed properly** in the default chromium browser. - -This is a strange thing that I never encountered before in my desktop Linux experience ever. First, I thought maybe it could be a browser problem so I went on to install Firefox only to see the same story repeated. Firefox also could not display Hindi properly. Unlike Chromium that displayed nothing, Firefox did display something but it was not readable. - -![No hindi support in Arch Linux based Antergos](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Hindi_Support_Antergos_Arch_linux_1.jpeg) - -Hindi display in Chromium - -![No hindi support in Arch Linux based Antergos](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Hindi_Support_Antergos_Arch_linux_2.jpeg) - -Hindi display in Firefox - -Strange? So no Hindi support in Arch based Antergos Linux by default? I did not verify, but I presume that it would be the same for other Indian languages etc that are also based on Devanagari script. - -I this quick tutorial, I am going to show you how to add Devanagari support so that Hindi and other Indian languages are displayed properly. - -### Add Indian language support in Antergos and Arch Linux ### - -Open a terminal and use the following command: - - sudo yaourt -S ttf-indic-otf - -Enter the password. And it will provide rendering support for Indian languages. - -Restarting Firefox displayed Hindi correctly immediately, but it took a restart to display Hindi. For that reason, I advise that you **restart your system** after installing the Indian fonts. - -![Adding Hindi display support in Arch based Antergos Linux](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Hindi_Support_Antergos_Arch_linux_4.jpeg) - -I hope tis quick helped you to read Hindi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Bangla and other Indian languages in Antergos and other Arch based Linux distros such as Manjaro Linux. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://itsfoss.com/display-hindi-arch-antergos/ - -作者：[Abhishek][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ -[1]:http://antergos.com/ -[2]:http://itsfoss.com/tag/antergos/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20150824 Mhddfs--Combine Several Smaller Partition into One Large Virtual Storage.md b/sources/tech/20150824 Mhddfs--Combine Several Smaller Partition into One Large Virtual Storage.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6815fa64d8..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/20150824 Mhddfs--Combine Several Smaller Partition into One Large Virtual Storage.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,186 +0,0 @@ -Mhddfs – Combine Several Smaller Partition into One Large Virtual Storage -================================================================================ -Let’s assume that you have 30GB of movies and you have 3 drives each 20 GB in size. So how will you store? - -Obviously you can split your videos in two or three different volumes and store them on the drive manually. This certainly is not a good idea, it is an exhaustive work which requires manual intervention and a lots of your time. - -Another solution is to create a [RAID array of disk][1]. The RAID has always remained notorious for loss of storage reliability and usable disk space. Another solution is mhddfs. - -![Combine Multiple Partitions in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Combine-Multiple-Partitions-in-Linux.png) - -Mhddfs – Combine Multiple Partitions in Linux - -mhddfs is a driver for Linux that combines several mount points into one virtual disk. It is a fuse based driver, which provides a easy solution for large data storage. It combines all small file systems to create a single big virtual filesystem which contains every particle of its member filesystem including files and free spaces. - -#### Why you need Mhddfs? #### - -All your storage devices creates a single virtual pool and it can be mounted right at the boot. This small utility takes care of, which drive is full and which is empty and to write data to what drive, intelligently. Once you create virtual drives successfully, you can share your virtual filesystem using [SAMBA][2]. Your client will always see a huge drive and lots of free space. - -#### Features of Mhddfs #### - -- Get attributes of the file system and system information. -- Set attributes of the file system. -- Create, Read, Remove and write Directories and files. -- Support for file locks and Hardlinks on single device. - -注：表格 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Pros of mhddfsCons of mhddfs
 Perfect for home users.mhddfs driver is not built in the Linux Kernel
 Simple to run. Required lots of processing power during runtime
 No evidence of Data loss No redundancy solution.
 Do not split the file. Hardlinks moving not supported
 Add new files to the combined virtual filesystem. 
 Manage the location where these files are saved. 
  Extended file attributes 
- -### Installation of Mhddfs in Linux ### - -On Debian and portable to alike systems, you can install mhddfs package using following command. - - # apt-get update && apt-get install mhddfs - -![Install Mhddfs on Debian based Systems](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Mhddfs-on-Ubuntu.png) - -Install Mhddfs on Debian based Systems - -On RHEL/CentOS Linux systems, you need to turn on [epel-repository][3] and then execute the below command to install mhddfs package. - - # yum install mhddfs - -On Fedora 22+ systems, you may get it by dnf package manger as shown below. - - # dnf install mhddfs - -![Install Mhddfs on Fedora](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Install-Mhddfs-on-Fedora.png) - -Install Mhddfs on Fedora - -If incase, mhddfs package isn’t available from epel repository, then you need to resolve following dependencies to install and compile it from source as shown below. - -- FUSE header files -- GCC -- libc6 header files -- uthash header files -- libattr1 header files (optional) - -Next, download the latest source package simply as suggested below and compile it. - - # wget http://mhddfs.uvw.ru/downloads/mhddfs_0.1.39.tar.gz - # tar -zxvf mhddfs*.tar.gz - # cd mhddfs-0.1.39/ - # make - -You should be able to see binary mhddfs in the current directory. Move it to /usr/bin/ and /usr/local/bin/ as root. - - # cp mhddfs /usr/bin/ - # cp mhddfs /usr/local/bin/ - -All set, mhddfs is ready to be used. - -### How do I use Mhddfs? ### - -1. Lets see all the HDD mounted to my system currently. - - $ df -h - -![Check Mounted Devices](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Check-Mounted-Devices.gif) - -**Sample Output** - - Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on - - /dev/sda1 511M 132K 511M 1% /boot/efi - /dev/sda2 451G 92G 336G 22% / - /dev/sdb1 1.9T 161G 1.7T 9% /media/avi/BD9B-5FCE - /dev/sdc1 555M 555M 0 100% /media/avi/Debian 8.1.0 M-A 1 - -Notice the ‘Mount Point‘ name here, which we will be using later. - -2. Create a directory `/mnt/virtual_hdd` where all these all file system will be grouped together as, - - # mkdir /mnt/virtual_hdd - -3. And then mount all the file-systems. Either as root or as a user who is a member of FUSE group. - - # mhddfs /boot/efi, /, /media/avi/BD9B-5FCE/, /media/avi/Debian\ 8.1.0\ M-A\ 1/ /mnt/virtual_hdd -o allow_other - -![Mount All File System in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Mount-All-File-System-in-Linux.png) - -Mount All File System in Linux - -**Note**: We are used mount Point names here of all the HDDs. Obviously the mount point in your case will be different. Also notice “-o allow_other” option makes this Virtual file system visible to all others and not only the person who created it. - -4. Now run “df -h” see all the filesystems. It should contain the one you created just now. - - $ df -h - -![Verify Virtual File System Mount](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Verify-Virtual-File-System.png) - -Verify Virtual File System Mount - -You can perform all the option to the Virtual File System you created as you would have done to a Mounted Drive. - -5. To create this Virtual File system on every system boot, you should add the below line of code (in your case it should be different, depending upon your mount point), at the end of /etc/fstab file as root. - - mhddfs# /boot/efi, /, /media/avi/BD9B-5FCE/, /media/avi/Debian\ 8.1.0\ M-A\ 1/ /mnt/virtual_hdd fuse defaults,allow_other 0 0 - -6. If at any point of time you want to add/remove a new drive to Virtual_hdd, you may mount a new drive, copy the contents of mount point /mnt/virtual_hdd, un-mount the volume, Eject the Drive you want to remove and/or mount the new drive you want to include, Mount the overall filesystem under Virtual_hdd using mhddfs command and you should be done. - -#### How do I Un-Mount Virtual_hdd? #### - -Unmounting virtual_hdd is as easy as, - - # umount /mnt/virtual_hdd - -![Unmount Virtual Filesystem](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Unmount-Virtual-Filesystem.png) - -Unmount Virtual Filesystem - -Notice it is umount and not unmount. A lot of user type it wrong. - -That’s all for now. I am working on another post you people will love to read. Till then stay tuned and connected to Tecmint. Provide us with your valuable feedback in the comments below. Like and share us and help us get spread. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/combine-partitions-into-one-in-linux-using-mhddfs/ - -作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/understanding-raid-setup-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/mount-filesystem-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/how-to-enable-epel-repository-for-rhel-centos-6-5/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20150831 How to switch from NetworkManager to systemd-networkd on Linux.md b/sources/tech/20150831 How to switch from NetworkManager to systemd-networkd on Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bc7ebee015 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20150831 How to switch from NetworkManager to systemd-networkd on Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +Translating by Ping + +How to switch from NetworkManager to systemd-networkd on Linux +================================================================================ +In the world of Linux, adoption of [systemd][1] has been a subject of heated controversy, and the debate between its proponents and critics is still going on. As of today, most major Linux distributions have adopted systemd as a default init system. + +Billed as a "never finished, never complete, but tracking progress of technology" by its author, systemd is not just the init daemon, but is designed as a more broad system and service management platform which encompasses the growing ecosystem of core system daemons, libraries and utilities. + +One of many additions to **systemd** is **systemd-networkd**, which is responsible for network configuration within the systemd ecosystem. Using systemd-networkd, you can configure basic DHCP/static IP networking for network devices. It can also configure virtual networking features such as bridges, tunnels or VLANs. Wireless networking is not directly handled by systemd-networkd, but you can use wpa_supplicant service to configure wireless adapters, and then hook it up with **systemd-networkd**. + +On many Linux distributions, NetworkManager has been and is still used as a default network configuration manager. Compared to NetworkManager, **systemd-networkd** is still under active development, and missing features. For example, it does not have NetworkManager's intelligence to keep your computer connected across various interfaces at all times. It does not provide ifup/ifdown hooks for advanced scripting. Yet, systemd-networkd is integrated well with the rest of systemd components (e.g., **resolved** for DNS, **timesyncd** for NTP, udevd for naming), and the role of **systemd-networkd** may only grow over time in the systemd environment. + +If you are happy with the way **systemd** is evolving, one thing you can consider is to switch from NetworkManager to systemd-networkd. If you are feverishly against systemd, and perfectly happy with NetworkManager or [basic network service][2], that is totally cool. + +But for those of you who want to try out systemd-networkd, you can read on, and find out in this tutorial how to switch from NetworkManager to systemd-networkd on Linux. + +### Requirement ### + +systemd-networkd is available in systemd version 210 and higher. Thus distributions like Debian 8 "Jessie" (systemd 215), Fedora 21 (systemd 217), Ubuntu 15.04 (systemd 219) or later are compatible with systemd-networkd. + +For other distributions, check the version of your systemd before proceeding. + + $ systemctl --version + +### Switch from Network Manager to Systemd-Networkd ### + +It is relatively straightforward to switch from Network Manager to systemd-networkd (and vice versa). + +First, disable Network Manager service, and enable systemd-networkd as follows. + + $ sudo systemctl disable NetworkManager + $ sudo systemctl enable systemd-networkd + +You also need to enable **systemd-resolved** service, which is used by systemd-networkd for network name resolution. This service implements a caching DNS server. + + $ sudo systemctl enable systemd-resolved + $ sudo systemctl start systemd-resolved + +Once started, **systemd-resolved** will create its own resolv.conf somewhere under /run/systemd directory. However, it is a common practise to store DNS resolver information in /etc/resolv.conf, and many applications still rely on /etc/resolv.conf. Thus for compatibility reason, create a symlink to /etc/resolv.conf as follows. + + $ sudo rm /etc/resolv.conf + $ sudo ln -s /run/systemd/resolve/resolv.conf /etc/resolv.conf + +### Configure Network Connections with Systemd-networkd ### + +To configure network devices with systemd-networkd, you must specify configuration information in text files with .network extension. These network configuration files are then stored and loaded from /etc/systemd/network. When there are multiple files, systemd-networkd loads and processes them one by one in lexical order. + +Let's start by creating a folder /etc/systemd/network. + + $ sudo mkdir /etc/systemd/network + +#### DHCP Networking #### + +Let's configure DHCP networking first. For this, create the following configuration file. The name of a file can be arbitrary, but remember that files are processed in lexical order. + + $ sudo vi /etc/systemd/network/20-dhcp.network + +---------- + + [Match] + Name=enp3* + + [Network] + DHCP=yes + +As you can see above, each network configuration file contains one or more "sections" with each section preceded by [XXX] heading. Each section contains one or more key/value pairs. The [Match] section determine which network device(s) are configured by this configuration file. For example, this file matches any network interface whose name starts with ens3 (e.g., enp3s0, enp3s1, enp3s2, etc). For matched interface(s), it then applies DHCP network configuration specified under [Network] section. + +### Static IP Networking ### + +If you want to assign a static IP address to a network interface, create the following configuration file. + + $ sudo vi /etc/systemd/network/10-static-enp3s0.network + +---------- + + [Match] + Name=enp3s0 + + [Network] + Address=192.168.10.50/24 + Gateway=192.168.10.1 + DNS=8.8.8.8 + +As you can guess, the interface enp3s0 will be assigned an address 192.168.10.50/24, a default gateway 192.168.10.1, and a DNS server 8.8.8.8. One subtlety here is that the name of an interface enp3s0, in facts, matches the pattern rule defined in the earlier DHCP configuration as well. However, since the file "10-static-enp3s0.network" is processed before "20-dhcp.network" according to lexical order, the static configuration takes priority over DHCP configuration in case of enp3s0 interface. + +Once you are done with creating configuration files, restart systemd-networkd service or reboot. + + $ sudo systemctl restart systemd-networkd + +Check the status of the service by running: + + $ systemctl status systemd-networkd + $ systemctl status systemd-resolved + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/719/21010813392_76abe123ed_c.jpg) + +### Configure Virtual Network Devices with Systemd-networkd ### + +**systemd-networkd** also allows you to configure virtual network devices such as bridges, VLANs, tunnel, VXLAN, bonding, etc. You must configure these virtual devices in files with .netdev extension. + +Here I'll show how to configure a bridge interface. + +#### Linux Bridge #### + +If you want to create a Linux bridge (br0) and add a physical interface (eth1) to the bridge, create the following configuration. + + $ sudo vi /etc/systemd/network/bridge-br0.netdev + +---------- + + [NetDev] + Name=br0 + Kind=bridge + +Then configure the bridge interface br0 and the slave interface eth1 using .network files as follows. + + $ sudo vi /etc/systemd/network/bridge-br0-slave.network + +---------- + + [Match] + Name=eth1 + + [Network] + Bridge=br0 + +---------- + + $ sudo vi /etc/systemd/network/bridge-br0.network + +---------- + + [Match] + Name=br0 + + [Network] + Address=192.168.10.100/24 + Gateway=192.168.10.1 + DNS=8.8.8.8 + +Finally, restart systemd-networkd: + + $ sudo systemctl restart systemd-networkd + +You can use [brctl tool][3] to verify that a bridge br0 has been created. + +### Summary ### + +When systemd promises to be a system manager for Linux, it is no wonder something like systemd-networkd came into being to manage network configurations. At this stage, however, systemd-networkd seems more suitable for a server environment where network configurations are relatively stable. For desktop/laptop environments which involve various transient wired/wireless interfaces, NetworkManager may still be a preferred choice. + +For those who want to check out more on systemd-networkd, refer to the official [man page][4] for a complete list of supported sections and keys. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://xmodulo.com/switch-from-networkmanager-to-systemd-networkd.html + +作者：[Dan Nanni][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://xmodulo.com/author/nanni +[1]:http://xmodulo.com/use-systemd-system-administration-debian.html +[2]:http://xmodulo.com/disable-network-manager-linux.html +[3]:http://xmodulo.com/how-to-configure-linux-bridge-interface.html +[4]:http://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd.network.html diff --git a/sources/tech/20150831 Linux workstation security checklist.md b/sources/tech/20150831 Linux workstation security checklist.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..9ef46339d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20150831 Linux workstation security checklist.md @@ -0,0 +1,801 @@ +wyangsun translating +Linux workstation security checklist +================================================================================ +This is a set of recommendations used by the Linux Foundation for their systems +administrators. All of LF employees are remote workers and we use this set of +guidelines to ensure that a sysadmin's system passes core security requirements +in order to reduce the risk of it becoming an attack vector against the rest +of our infrastructure. + +Even if your systems administrators are not remote workers, chances are that +they perform a lot of their work either from a portable laptop in a work +environment, or set up their home systems to access the work infrastructure +for after-hours/emergency support. In either case, you can adapt this set of +recommendations to suit your environment. + +This, by no means, is an exhaustive "workstation hardening" document, but +rather an attempt at a set of baseline recommendations to avoid most glaring +security errors without introducing too much inconvenience. You may read this +document and think it is way too paranoid, while someone else may think this +barely scratches the surface. Security is just like driving on the highway -- +anyone going slower than you is an idiot, while anyone driving faster than you +is a crazy person. These guidelines are merely a basic set of core safety +rules that is neither exhaustive, nor a replacement for experience, vigilance, +and common sense. + +Each section is split into two areas: + +- The checklist that can be adapted to your project's needs +- Free-form list of considerations that explain what dictated these decisions + +## Severity levels + +The items in each checklist include the severity level, which we hope will help +guide your decision: + +- _(CRITICAL)_ items should definitely be high on the consideration list. + If not implemented, they will introduce high risks to your workstation + security. +- _(MODERATE)_ items will improve your security posture, but are less + important, especially if they interfere too much with your workflow. +- _(LOW)_ items may improve the overall security, but may not be worth the + convenience trade-offs. +- _(PARANOID)_ is reserved for items we feel will dramatically improve your + workstation security, but will probably require a lot of adjustment to the + way you interact with your operating system. + +Remember, these are only guidelines. If you feel these severity levels do not +reflect your project's commitment to security, you should adjust them as you +see fit. + +## Choosing the right hardware + +We do not mandate that our admins use a specific vendor or a specific model, so +this section addresses core considerations when choosing a work system. + +### Checklist + +- [ ] System supports SecureBoot _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] System has no firewire, thunderbolt or ExpressCard ports _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] System has a TPM chip _(LOW)_ + +### Considerations + +#### SecureBoot + +Despite its controversial nature, SecureBoot offers prevention against many +attacks targeting workstations (Rootkits, "Evil Maid," etc), without +introducing too much extra hassle. It will not stop a truly dedicated attacker, +plus there is a pretty high degree of certainty that state security agencies +have ways to defeat it (probably by design), but having SecureBoot is better +than having nothing at all. + +Alternatively, you may set up [Anti Evil Maid][1] which offers a more +wholesome protection against the type of attacks that SecureBoot is supposed +to prevent, but it will require more effort to set up and maintain. + +#### Firewire, thunderbolt, and ExpressCard ports + +Firewire is a standard that, by design, allows any connecting device full +direct memory access to your system ([see Wikipedia][2]). Thunderbolt and +ExpressCard are guilty of the same, though some later implementations of +Thunderbolt attempt to limit the scope of memory access. It is best if the +system you are getting has none of these ports, but it is not critical, as +they usually can be turned off via UEFI or disabled in the kernel itself. + +#### TPM Chip + +Trusted Platform Module (TPM) is a crypto chip bundled with the motherboard +separately from the core processor, which can be used for additional platform +security (such as to store full-disk encryption keys), but is not normally used +for day-to-day workstation operation. At best, this is a nice-to-have, unless +you have a specific need to use TPM for your workstation security. + +## Pre-boot environment + +This is a set of recommendations for your workstation before you even start +with OS installation. + +### Checklist + +- [ ] UEFI boot mode is used (not legacy BIOS) _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Password is required to enter UEFI configuration _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] SecureBoot is enabled _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] UEFI-level password is required to boot the system _(LOW)_ + +### Considerations + +#### UEFI and SecureBoot + +UEFI, with all its warts, offers a lot of goodies that legacy BIOS doesn't, +such as SecureBoot. Most modern systems come with UEFI mode on by default. + +Make sure a strong password is required to enter UEFI configuration mode. Pay +attention, as many manufacturers quietly limit the length of the password you +are allowed to use, so you may need to choose high-entropy short passwords vs. +long passphrases (see below for more on passphrases). + +Depending on the Linux distribution you decide to use, you may or may not have +to jump through additional hoops in order to import your distribution's +SecureBoot key that would allow you to boot the distro. Many distributions have +partnered with Microsoft to sign their released kernels with a key that is +already recognized by most system manufacturers, therefore saving you the +trouble of having to deal with key importing. + +As an extra measure, before someone is allowed to even get to the boot +partition and try some badness there, let's make them enter a password. This +password should be different from your UEFI management password, in order to +prevent shoulder-surfing. If you shut down and start a lot, you may choose to +not bother with this, as you will already have to enter a LUKS passphrase and +this will save you a few extra keystrokes. + +## Distro choice considerations + +Chances are you'll stick with a fairly widely-used distribution such as Fedora, +Ubuntu, Arch, Debian, or one of their close spin-offs. In any case, this is +what you should consider when picking a distribution to use. + +### Checklist + +- [ ] Has a robust MAC/RBAC implementation (SELinux/AppArmor/Grsecurity) _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Publishes security bulletins _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Provides timely security patches _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Provides cryptographic verification of packages _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Fully supports UEFI and SecureBoot _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Has robust native full disk encryption support _(CRITICAL)_ + +### Considerations + +#### SELinux, AppArmor, and GrSecurity/PaX + +Mandatory Access Controls (MAC) or Role-Based Access Controls (RBAC) are an +extension of the basic user/group security mechanism used in legacy POSIX +systems. Most distributions these days either already come bundled with a +MAC/RBAC implementation (Fedora, Ubuntu), or provide a mechanism to add it via +an optional post-installation step (Gentoo, Arch, Debian). Obviously, it is +highly advised that you pick a distribution that comes pre-configured with a +MAC/RBAC system, but if you have strong feelings about a distribution that +doesn't have one enabled by default, do plan to configure it +post-installation. + +Distributions that do not provide any MAC/RBAC mechanisms should be strongly +avoided, as traditional POSIX user- and group-based security should be +considered insufficient in this day and age. If you would like to start out +with a MAC/RBAC workstation, AppArmor and PaX are generally considered easier +to learn than SELinux. Furthermore, on a workstation, where there are few or +no externally listening daemons, and where user-run applications pose the +highest risk, GrSecurity/PaX will _probably_ offer more security benefits than +SELinux. + +#### Distro security bulletins + +Most of the widely used distributions have a mechanism to deliver security +bulletins to their users, but if you are fond of something esoteric, check +whether the developers have a documented mechanism of alerting the users about +security vulnerabilities and patches. Absence of such mechanism is a major +warning sign that the distribution is not mature enough to be considered for a +primary admin workstation. + +#### Timely and trusted security updates + +Most of the widely used distributions deliver regular security updates, but is +worth checking to ensure that critical package updates are provided in a +timely fashion. Avoid using spin-offs and "community rebuilds" for this +reason, as they routinely delay security updates due to having to wait for the +upstream distribution to release it first. + +You'll be hard-pressed to find a distribution that does not use cryptographic +signatures on packages, updates metadata, or both. That being said, fairly +widely used distributions have been known to go for years before introducing +this basic security measure (Arch, I'm looking at you), so this is a thing +worth checking. + +#### Distros supporting UEFI and SecureBoot + +Check that the distribution supports UEFI and SecureBoot. Find out whether it +requires importing an extra key or whether it signs its boot kernels with a key +already trusted by systems manufacturers (e.g. via an agreement with +Microsoft). Some distributions do not support UEFI/SecureBoot but offer +alternatives to ensure tamper-proof or tamper-evident boot environments +([Qubes-OS][3] uses Anti Evil Maid, mentioned earlier). If a distribution +doesn't support SecureBoot and has no mechanisms to prevent boot-level attacks, +look elsewhere. + +#### Full disk encryption + +Full disk encryption is a requirement for securing data at rest, and is +supported by most distributions. As an alternative, systems with +self-encrypting hard drives may be used (normally implemented via the on-board +TPM chip) and offer comparable levels of security plus faster operation, but at +a considerably higher cost. + +## Distro installation guidelines + +All distributions are different, but here are general guidelines: + +### Checklist + +- [ ] Use full disk encryption (LUKS) with a robust passphrase _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Make sure swap is also encrypted _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Require a password to edit bootloader (can be same as LUKS) _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Set up a robust root password (can be same as LUKS) _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Use an unprivileged account, part of administrators group _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Set up a robust user-account password, different from root _(CRITICAL)_ + +### Considerations + +#### Full disk encryption + +Unless you are using self-encrypting hard drives, it is important to configure +your installer to fully encrypt all the disks that will be used for storing +your data and your system files. It is not sufficient to simply encrypt the +user directory via auto-mounting cryptfs loop files (I'm looking at you, older +versions of Ubuntu), as this offers no protection for system binaries or swap, +which is likely to contain a slew of sensitive data. The recommended +encryption strategy is to encrypt the LVM device, so only one passphrase is +required during the boot process. + +The `/boot` partition will always remain unencrypted, as the bootloader needs +to be able to actually boot the kernel before invoking LUKS/dm-crypt. The +kernel image itself should be protected against tampering with a cryptographic +signature checked by SecureBoot. + +In other words, `/boot` should always be the only unencrypted partition on your +system. + +#### Choosing good passphrases + +Modern Linux systems have no limitation of password/passphrase length, so the +only real limitation is your level of paranoia and your stubbornness. If you +boot your system a lot, you will probably have to type at least two different +passwords: one to unlock LUKS, and another one to log in, so having long +passphrases will probably get old really fast. Pick passphrases that are 2-3 +words long, easy to type, and preferably from rich/mixed vocabularies. + +Examples of good passphrases (yes, you can use spaces): +- nature abhors roombas +- 12 in-flight Jebediahs +- perdon, tengo flatulence + +You can also stick with non-vocabulary passwords that are at least 10-12 +characters long, if you prefer that to typing passphrases. + +Unless you have concerns about physical security, it is fine to write down your +passphrases and keep them in a safe place away from your work desk. + +#### Root, user passwords and the admin group + +We recommend that you use the same passphrase for your root password as you +use for your LUKS encryption (unless you share your laptop with other trusted +people who should be able to unlock the drives, but shouldn't be able to +become root). If you are the sole user of the laptop, then having your root +password be different from your LUKS password has no meaningful security +advantages. Generally, you can use the same passphrase for your UEFI +administration, disk encryption, and root account -- knowing any of these will +give an attacker full control of your system anyway, so there is little +security benefit to have them be different on a single-user workstation. + +You should have a different, but equally strong password for your regular user +account that you will be using for day-to-day tasks. This user should be member +of the admin group (e.g. `wheel` or similar, depending on the distribution), +allowing you to perform `sudo` to elevate privileges. + +In other words, if you are the sole user on your workstation, you should have 2 +distinct, robust, equally strong passphrases you will need to remember: + +**Admin-level**, used in the following locations: + +- UEFI administration +- Bootloader (GRUB) +- Disk encryption (LUKS) +- Workstation admin (root user) + +**User-level**, used for the following: + +- User account and sudo +- Master password for the password manager + +All of them, obviously, can be different if there is a compelling reason. + +## Post-installation hardening + +Post-installation security hardening will depend greatly on your distribution +of choice, so it is futile to provide detailed instructions in a general +document such as this one. However, here are some steps you should take: + +### Checklist + +- [ ] Globally disable firewire and thunderbolt modules _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Check your firewalls to ensure all incoming ports are filtered _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Make sure root mail is forwarded to an account you check _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Check to ensure sshd service is disabled by default _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] Set up an automatic OS update schedule, or update reminders _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] Configure the screensaver to auto-lock after a period of inactivity _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] Set up logwatch _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] Install and use rkhunter _(LOW)_ +- [ ] Install an Intrusion Detection System _(PARANOID)_ + +### Considerations + +#### Blacklisting modules + +To blacklist a firewire and thunderbolt modules, add the following lines to a +file in `/etc/modprobe.d/blacklist-dma.conf`: + + blacklist firewire-core + blacklist thunderbolt + +The modules will be blacklisted upon reboot. It doesn't hurt doing this even if +you don't have these ports (but it doesn't do anything either). + +#### Root mail + +By default, root mail is just saved on the system and tends to never be read. +Make sure you set your `/etc/aliases` to forward root mail to a mailbox that +you actually read, otherwise you may miss important system notifications and +reports: + + # Person who should get root's mail + root: bob@example.com + +Run `newaliases` after this edit and test it out to make sure that it actually +gets delivered, as some email providers will reject email coming in from +nonexistent or non-routable domain names. If that is the case, you will need to +play with your mail forwarding configuration until this actually works. + +#### Firewalls, sshd, and listening daemons + +The default firewall settings will depend on your distribution, but many of +them will allow incoming `sshd` ports. Unless you have a compelling legitimate +reason to allow incoming ssh, you should filter that out and disable the `sshd` +daemon. + + systemctl disable sshd.service + systemctl stop sshd.service + +You can always start it temporarily if you need to use it. + +In general, your system shouldn't have any listening ports apart from +responding to ping. This will help safeguard you against network-level 0-day +exploits. + +#### Automatic updates or notifications + +It is recommended to turn on automatic updates, unless you have a very good +reason not to do so, such as fear that an automatic update would render your +system unusable (it's happened in the past, so this fear is not unfounded). At +the very least, you should enable automatic notifications of available updates. +Most distributions already have this service automatically running for you, so +chances are you don't have to do anything. Consult your distribution +documentation to find out more. + +You should apply all outstanding errata as soon as possible, even if something +isn't specifically labeled as "security update" or has an associated CVE code. +All bugs have the potential of being security bugs and erring on the side of +newer, unknown bugs is _generally_ a safer strategy than sticking with old, +known ones. + +#### Watching logs + +You should have a keen interest in what happens on your system. For this +reason, you should install `logwatch` and configure it to send nightly activity +reports of everything that happens on your system. This won't prevent a +dedicated attacker, but is a good safety-net feature to have in place. + +Note, that many systemd distros will no longer automatically install a syslog +server that `logwatch` needs (due to systemd relying on its own journal), so +you will need to install and enable `rsyslog` to make sure your `/var/log` is +not empty before logwatch will be of any use. + +#### Rkhunter and IDS + +Installing `rkhunter` and an intrusion detection system (IDS) like `aide` or +`tripwire` will not be that useful unless you actually understand how they work +and take the necessary steps to set them up properly (such as, keeping the +databases on external media, running checks from a trusted environment, +remembering to refresh the hash databases after performing system updates and +configuration changes, etc). If you are not willing to take these steps and +adjust how you do things on your own workstation, these tools will introduce +hassle without any tangible security benefit. + +We do recommend that you install `rkhunter` and run it nightly. It's fairly +easy to learn and use, and though it will not deter a sophisticated attacker, +it may help you catch your own mistakes. + +## Personal workstation backups + +Workstation backups tend to be overlooked or done in a haphazard, often unsafe +manner. + +### Checklist + +- [ ] Set up encrypted workstation backups to external storage _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Use zero-knowledge backup tools for cloud backups _(MODERATE)_ + +### Considerations + +#### Full encrypted backups to external storage + +It is handy to have an external hard drive where one can dump full backups +without having to worry about such things like bandwidth and upstream speeds +(in this day and age most providers still offer dramatically asymmetric +upload/download speeds). Needless to say, this hard drive needs to be in itself +encrypted (again, via LUKS), or you should use a backup tool that creates +encrypted backups, such as `duplicity` or its GUI companion, `deja-dup`. I +recommend using the latter with a good randomly generated passphrase, stored in +your password manager. If you travel with your laptop, leave this drive at home +to have something to come back to in case your laptop is lost or stolen. + +In addition to your home directory, you should also back up `/etc` and +`/var/log` for various forensic purposes. + +Above all, avoid copying your home directory onto any unencrypted storage, even +as a quick way to move your files around between systems, as you will most +certainly forget to erase it once you're done, exposing potentially private or +otherwise security sensitive data to snooping hands -- especially if you keep +that storage media in the same bag with your laptop. + +#### Selective zero-knowledge backups off-site + +Off-site backups are also extremely important and can be done either to your +employer, if they offer space for it, or to a cloud provider. You can set up a +separate duplicity/deja-dup profile to only include most important files in +order to avoid transferring huge amounts of data that you don't really care to +back up off-site (internet cache, music, downloads, etc). + +Alternatively, you can use a zero-knowledge backup tool, such as +[SpiderOak][5], which offers an excellent Linux GUI tool and has additional +useful features such as synchronizing content between multiple systems and +platforms. + +## Best practices + +What follows is a curated list of best practices that we think you should +adopt. It is most certainly non-exhaustive, but rather attempts to offer +practical advice that strikes a workable balance between security and overall +usability. + +### Browsing + +There is no question that the web browser will be the piece of software with +the largest and the most exposed attack surface on your system. It is a tool +written specifically to download and execute untrusted, frequently hostile +code. It attempts to shield you from this danger by employing multiple +mechanisms such as sandboxes and code sanitization, but they have all been +previously defeated on multiple occasions. You should learn to approach +browsing websites as the most insecure activity you'll engage in on any given +day. + +There are several ways you can reduce the impact of a compromised browser, but +the truly effective ways will require significant changes in the way you +operate your workstation. + +#### 1: Use two different browsers + +This is the easiest to do, but only offers minor security benefits. Not all +browser compromises give an attacker full unfettered access to your system -- +sometimes they are limited to allowing one to read local browser storage, +steal active sessions from other tabs, capture input entered into the browser, +etc. Using two different browsers, one for work/high security sites, and +another for everything else will help prevent minor compromises from giving +attackers access to the whole cookie jar. The main inconvenience will be the +amount of memory consumed by two different browser processes. + +Here's what we recommend: + +##### Firefox for work and high security sites + +Use Firefox to access work-related sites, where extra care should be taken to +ensure that data like cookies, sessions, login information, keystrokes, etc, +should most definitely not fall into attackers' hands. You should NOT use +this browser for accessing any other sites except select few. + +You should install the following Firefox add-ons: + +- [ ] NoScript _(CRITICAL)_ + - NoScript prevents active content from loading, except from user + whitelisted domains. It is a great hassle to use with your default browser + (though offers really good security benefits), so we recommend only + enabling it on the browser you use to access work-related sites. + +- [ ] Privacy Badger _(CRITICAL)_ + - EFF's Privacy Badger will prevent most external trackers and ad platforms + from being loaded, which will help avoid compromises on these tracking + sites from affecting your browser (trackers and ad sites are very commonly + targeted by attackers, as they allow rapid infection of thousands of + systems worldwide). + +- [ ] HTTPS Everywhere _(CRITICAL)_ + - This EFF-developed Add-on will ensure that most of your sites are accessed + over a secure connection, even if a link you click is using http:// (great + to avoid a number of attacks, such as [SSL-strip][7]). + +- [ ] Certificate Patrol _(MODERATE)_ + - This tool will alert you if the site you're accessing has recently changed + their TLS certificates -- especially if it wasn't nearing expiration dates + or if it is now using a different certification authority. It helps + alert you if someone is trying to man-in-the-middle your connection, + but generates a lot of benign false-positives. + +You should leave Firefox as your default browser for opening links, as +NoScript will prevent most active content from loading or executing. + +##### Chrome/Chromium for everything else + +Chromium developers are ahead of Firefox in adding a lot of nice security +features (at least [on Linux][6]), such as seccomp sandboxes, kernel user +namespaces, etc, which act as an added layer of isolation between the sites +you visit and the rest of your system. Chromium is the upstream open-source +project, and Chrome is Google's proprietary binary build based on it (insert +the usual paranoid caution about not using it for anything you don't want +Google to know about). + +It is recommended that you install **Privacy Badger** and **HTTPS Everywhere** +extensions in Chrome as well and give it a distinct theme from Firefox to +indicate that this is your "untrusted sites" browser. + +#### 2: Use two different browsers, one inside a dedicated VM + +This is a similar recommendation to the above, except you will add an extra +step of running Chrome inside a dedicated VM that you access via a fast +protocol, allowing you to share clipboards and forward sound events (e.g. +Spice or RDP). This will add an excellent layer of isolation between the +untrusted browser and the rest of your work environment, ensuring that +attackers who manage to fully compromise your browser will then have to +additionally break out of the VM isolation layer in order to get to the rest +of your system. + +This is a surprisingly workable configuration, but requires a lot of RAM and +fast processors that can handle the increased load. It will also require an +important amount of dedication on the part of the admin who will need to +adjust their work practices accordingly. + +#### 3: Fully separate your work and play environments via virtualization + +See [Qubes-OS project][3], which strives to provide a high-security +workstation environment via compartmentalizing your applications into separate +fully isolated VMs. + +### Password managers + +#### Checklist + +- [ ] Use a password manager _(CRITICAL_) +- [ ] Use unique passwords on unrelated sites _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Use a password manager that supports team sharing _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] Use a separate password manager for non-website accounts _(PARANOID)_ + +#### Considerations + +Using good, unique passwords should be a critical requirement for every member +of your team. Credential theft is happening all the time -- either via +compromised computers, stolen database dumps, remote site exploits, or any +number of other means. No credentials should ever be reused across sites, +especially for critical applications. + +##### In-browser password manager + +Every browser has a mechanism for saving passwords that is fairly secure and +can sync with vendor-maintained cloud storage while keeping the data encrypted +with a user-provided passphrase. However, this mechanism has important +disadvantages: + +1. It does not work across browsers +2. It does not offer any way of sharing credentials with team members + +There are several well-supported, free-or-cheap password managers that are +well-integrated into multiple browsers, work across platforms, and offer +group sharing (usually as a paid service). Solutions can be easily found via +search engines. + +##### Standalone password manager + +One of the major drawbacks of any password manager that comes integrated with +the browser is the fact that it's part of the application that is most likely +to be attacked by intruders. If this makes you uncomfortable (and it should), +you may choose to have two different password managers -- one for websites +that is integrated into your browser, and one that runs as a standalone +application. The latter can be used to store high-risk credentials such as +root passwords, database passwords, other shell account credentials, etc. + +It may be particularly useful to have such tool for sharing superuser account +credentials with other members of your team (server root passwords, ILO +passwords, database admin passwords, bootloader passwords, etc). + +A few tools can help you: + +- [KeePassX][8], which improves team sharing in version 2 +- [Pass][9], which uses text files and PGP and integrates with git +- [Django-Pstore][10], which uses GPG to share credentials between admins +- [Hiera-Eyaml][11], which, if you are already using Puppet for your + infrastructure, may be a handy way to track your server/service credentials + as part of your encrypted Hiera data store + +### Securing SSH and PGP private keys + +Personal encryption keys, including SSH and PGP private keys, are going to be +the most prized items on your workstation -- something the attackers will be +most interested in obtaining, as that would allow them to further attack your +infrastructure or impersonate you to other admins. You should take extra steps +to ensure that your private keys are well protected against theft. + +#### Checklist + +- [ ] Strong passphrases are used to protect private keys _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] PGP Master key is stored on removable storage _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] Auth, Sign and Encrypt Subkeys are stored on a smartcard device _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] SSH is configured to use PGP Auth key as ssh private key _(MODERATE)_ + +#### Considerations + +The best way to prevent private key theft is to use a smartcard to store your +encryption private keys and never copy them onto the workstation. There are +several manufacturers that offer OpenPGP capable devices: + +- [Kernel Concepts][12], where you can purchase both the OpenPGP compatible + smartcards and the USB readers, should you need one. +- [Yubikey NEO][13], which offers OpenPGP smartcard functionality in addition + to many other cool features (U2F, PIV, HOTP, etc). + +It is also important to make sure that the master PGP key is not stored on the +main workstation, and only subkeys are used. The master key will only be +needed when signing someone else's keys or creating new subkeys -- operations +which do not happen very frequently. You may follow [the Debian's subkeys][14] +guide to learn how to move your master key to removable storage and how to +create subkeys. + +You should then configure your gnupg agent to act as ssh agent and use the +smartcard-based PGP Auth key to act as your ssh private key. We publish a +[detailed guide][15] on how to do that using either a smartcard reader or a +Yubikey NEO. + +If you are not willing to go that far, at least make sure you have a strong +passphrase on both your PGP private key and your SSH private key, which will +make it harder for attackers to steal and use them. + +### SELinux on the workstation + +If you are using a distribution that comes bundled with SELinux (such as +Fedora), here are some recommendation of how to make the best use of it to +maximize your workstation security. + +#### Checklist + +- [ ] Make sure SELinux is enforcing on your workstation _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Never blindly run `audit2allow -M`, always check _(CRITICAL)_ +- [ ] Never `setenforce 0` _(MODERATE)_ +- [ ] Switch your account to SELinux user `staff_u` _(MODERATE)_ + +#### Considerations + +SELinux is a Mandatory Access Controls (MAC) extension to core POSIX +permissions functionality. It is mature, robust, and has come a long way since +its initial roll-out. Regardless, many sysadmins to this day repeat the +outdated mantra of "just turn it off." + +That being said, SELinux will have limited security benefits on the +workstation, as most applications you will be running as a user are going to +be running unconfined. It does provide enough net benefit to warrant leaving +it on, as it will likely help prevent an attacker from escalating privileges +to gain root-level access via a vulnerable daemon service. + +Our recommendation is to leave it on and enforcing. + +##### Never `setenforce 0` + +It's tempting to use `setenforce 0` to flip SELinux into permissive mode +on a temporary basis, but you should avoid doing that. This essentially turns +off SELinux for the entire system, while what you really want is to +troubleshoot a particular application or daemon. + +Instead of `setenforce 0` you should be using `semanage permissive -a +[somedomain_t]` to put only that domain into permissive mode. First, find out +which domain is causing troubles by running `ausearch`: + + ausearch -ts recent -m avc + +and then look for `scontext=` (source SELinux context) line, like so: + + scontext=staff_u:staff_r:gpg_pinentry_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +This tells you that the domain being denied is `gpg_pinentry_t`, so if you +want to troubleshoot the application, you should add it to permissive domains: + + semange permissive -a gpg_pinentry_t + +This will allow you to use the application and collect the rest of the AVCs, +which you can then use in conjunction with `audit2allow` to write a local +policy. Once that is done and you see no new AVC denials, you can remove that +domain from permissive by running: + + semanage permissive -d gpg_pinentry_t + +##### Use your workstation as SELinux role staff_r + +SELinux comes with a native implementation of roles that prohibit or grant +certain privileges based on the role associated with the user account. As an +administrator, you should be using the `staff_r` role, which will restrict +access to many configuration and other security-sensitive files, unless you +first perform `sudo`. + +By default, accounts are created as `unconfined_r` and most applications you +execute will run unconfined, without any (or with only very few) SELinux +constraints. To switch your account to the `staff_r` role, run the following +command: + + usermod -Z staff_u [username] + +You should log out and log back in to enable the new role, at which point if +you run `id -Z`, you'll see: + + staff_u:staff_r:staff_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 + +When performing `sudo`, you should remember to add an extra flag to tell +SELinux to transition to the "sysadmin" role. The command you want is: + + sudo -i -r sysadm_r + +At which point `id -Z` will show: + + staff_u:sysadm_r:sysadm_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 + +**WARNING**: you should be comfortable using `ausearch` and `audit2allow` +before you make this switch, as it's possible some of your applications will +no longer work when you're running as role `staff_r`. At the time of writing, +the following popular applications are known to not work under `staff_r` +without policy tweaks: + +- Chrome/Chromium +- Skype +- VirtualBox + +To switch back to `unconfined_r`, run the following command: + + usermod -Z unconfined_u [username] + +and then log out and back in to get back into the comfort zone. + +## Further reading + +The world of IT security is a rabbit hole with no bottom. If you would like to +go deeper, or find out more about security features on your particular +distribution, please check out the following links: + +- [Fedora Security Guide](https://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora/19/html/Security_Guide/index.html) +- [CESG Ubuntu Security Guide](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/end-user-devices-security-guidance-ubuntu-1404-lts) +- [Debian Security Manual](https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/securing-debian-howto/index.en.html) +- [Arch Linux Security Wiki](https://wiki.archlinux.org/index.php/Security) +- [Mac OSX Security](https://www.apple.com/support/security/guides/) + +## License +This work is licensed under a +[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License][0]. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://github.com/lfit/itpol/blob/master/linux-workstation-security.md#linux-workstation-security-checklist + +作者：[mricon][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://github.com/mricon +[0]: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ +[1]: https://github.com/QubesOS/qubes-antievilmaid +[2]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_1394#Security_issues +[3]: https://qubes-os.org/ +[4]: https://xkcd.com/936/ +[5]: https://spideroak.com/ +[6]: https://code.google.com/p/chromium/wiki/LinuxSandboxing +[7]: http://www.thoughtcrime.org/software/sslstrip/ +[8]: https://keepassx.org/ +[9]: http://www.passwordstore.org/ +[10]: https://pypi.python.org/pypi/django-pstore +[11]: https://github.com/TomPoulton/hiera-eyaml +[12]: http://shop.kernelconcepts.de/ +[13]: https://www.yubico.com/products/yubikey-hardware/yubikey-neo/ +[14]: https://wiki.debian.org/Subkeys +[15]: https://github.com/lfit/ssh-gpg-smartcard-config diff --git a/sources/tech/20150906 How to Configure OpenNMS on CentOS 7.x.md b/sources/tech/20150906 How to Configure OpenNMS on CentOS 7.x.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c7810d06ef --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20150906 How to Configure OpenNMS on CentOS 7.x.md @@ -0,0 +1,219 @@ +How to Configure OpenNMS on CentOS 7.x +================================================================================ +Systems management and monitoring services are very important that provides information to view important systems management information that allow us to to make decisions based on this information. To make sure the network is running at its best and to minimize the network downtime we need to improve application performance. So, in this article we will make you understand the step by step procedure to setup OpenNMS in your IT infrastructure. OpenNMS is a free open source enterprise level network monitoring and management platform that provides information to allow us to make decisions in regards to future network and capacity planning. + +OpenNMS designed to manage tens of thousands of devices from a single server as well as manage unlimited devices using a cluster of servers. It includes a discovery engine to automatically configure and manage network devices without operator intervention. It is written in Java and is published under the GNU General Public License. OpenNMS is known for its scalability with its main functional areas in services monitoring, data collection using SNMP and event management and notifications. + +### Installing OpenNMS RPM Repository ### + +We will start from the installation of OpenNMS RPM for our CentOs 7.1 operating system as its available for most of the RPM-based distributions through Yum at their official link http://yum.opennms.org/ . + +![OpenNMS RPM](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/18.png) + +Then open your command line interface of CentOS 7.1 and login with root credentials to run the below command with “wget” to get the required RPM. + + [root@open-nms ~]# wget http://yum.opennms.org/repofiles/opennms-repo-stable-rhel7.noarch.rpm + +![Download RPM](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/26.png) + +Now we need to install this repository so that the OpenNMS package information could be available through yum for installation. Let’s run the command below with same root level credentials to do so. + + [root@open-nms ~]# rpm -Uvh opennms-repo-stable-rhel7.noarch.rpm + +![Installing RPM](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/36.png) + +### Installing Prerequisite Packages for OpenNMS ### + +Now before we start installation of OpenNMS, let’s make sure you’ve done the following prerequisites. + +**Install JDK 7** + +Its recommended that you install the latest stable Java 7 JDK from Oracle for the best performance to integrate JDK in our YUM repository as a fallback. Let’s go to the Oracle Java 7 SE JDK download page, accept the license if you agree, choose the platform and architecture. Once it has finished downloading, execute it from the command-line and then install the resulting JDK rpm. + +Else run the below command to install using the Yum from the the available system repositories. + + [root@open-nms ~]# yum install java-1.7.0-openjdk-1.7.0.85-2.6.1.2.el7_1 + +Once you have installed the Java you can confirm its installation using below command and check its installed version. + + [root@open-nms ~]# java -version + +![Java version](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/46.png) + +**Install PostgreSQL** + +Now we will install the PostgreSQL that is a must requirement to setup the database for OpenNMS. PostgreSQL is included in all of the major YUM-based distributions. To install, simply run the below command. + + [root@open-nms ~]# yum install postgresql postgresql-server + +![Installing Postgresql](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/55.png) + +### Prepare the Database for OpenNMS ### + +Once you have installed PostgreSQL, now you'll need to make sure that PostgreSQL is up and active. Let’s run the below command to first initialize the database and then start its services. + + [root@open-nms ~]# /sbin/service postgresql initdb + [root@open-nms ~]# /sbin/service postgresql start + +![start DB](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/64.png) + +Now to confirm the status of your PostgreSQL database you can run the below command. + + [root@open-nms ~]# service postgresql status + +![PostgreSQL status](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/74.png) + +To ensure that PostgreSQL will start after a reboot, use the “systemctl”command to enable start on bootup using below command. + + [root@open-nms ~]# systemctl enable postgresql + ln -s '/usr/lib/systemd/system/postgresql.service' '/etc/systemd/system/multi-user.target.wants/postgresql.service' + +### Configure PostgreSQL ### + +Locate the Postgres “data” directory. Often this is located in /var/lib/pgsql/data directory and Open the postgresql.conf file in text editor and configure the following parameters as shown. + + [root@open-nms ~]# vim /var/lib/pgsql/data/postgresql.conf + +---------- + + #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + # CONNECTIONS AND AUTHENTICATION + #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + listen_addresses = 'localhost' + max_connections = 256 + + #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + # RESOURCE USAGE (except WAL) + #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + shared_buffers = 1024MB + +**User Access to the Database** + +PostgreSQL only allows you to connect if you are logged in to the local account name that matches the PostgreSQL user. Since OpenNMS runs as root, it cannot connect as a "postgres" or "opennms" user by default, so we have to change the configuration to allow user access to the database by opening the below configuration file. + + [root@open-nms ~]# vim /var/lib/pgsql/data/pg_hba.conf + +Update the configuration file as shown below and change the METHOD settings from "ident" to "trust" + +![user access to db](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/84.png) + +Write and quit the file to make saved changes and then restart PostgreSQL services. + + [root@open-nms ~]# service postgresql restart + +### Starting OpenNMS Installation ### + +Now we are ready go with installation of OpenNMS as we have almost don with its prerequisites. Using the YUM packaging system will download and install all of the required components and their dependencies, if they are not already installed on your system. +So let's riun th belwo command to start OpenNMS installation that will pull everything you need to have a working OpenNMS, including the OpenNMS core, web UI, and a set of common plugins. + + [root@open-nms ~]# yum -y install opennms + +![OpenNMS Installation](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/93.png) + +The above command will ends up with successful installation of OpenNMS and its derivative packages. + +### Configure JAVA for OpenNMS ### + +In order to integrate the default version of Java with OpenNMS we will run the below command. + + [root@open-nms ~]# /opt/opennms/bin/runjava -s + +![java integration](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/102.png) + +### Run the OpenNMS installer ### + +Now it's time to start the OpenNMS installer that will create and configure the OpenNMS database, while the same command will be used in case we want to update it to the latest version. To do so, we will run the following command. + + [root@open-nms ~]# /opt/opennms/bin/install -dis + +The above install command will take many options with following mechanism. + +-d - to update the database +-i - to insert any default data that belongs in the database +-s - to create or update the stored procedures OpenNMS uses for certain kinds of data access + + ============================================================================== + OpenNMS Installer + ============================================================================== + + Configures PostgreSQL tables, users, and other miscellaneous settings. + + DEBUG: Platform is IPv6 ready: true + - searching for libjicmp.so: + - trying to load /usr/lib64/libjicmp.so: OK + - searching for libjicmp6.so: + - trying to load /usr/lib64/libjicmp6.so: OK + - searching for libjrrd.so: + - trying to load /usr/lib64/libjrrd.so: OK + - using SQL directory... /opt/opennms/etc + - using create.sql... /opt/opennms/etc/create.sql + 17:27:51.178 [Main] INFO org.opennms.core.schema.Migrator - PL/PgSQL call handler exists + 17:27:51.180 [Main] INFO org.opennms.core.schema.Migrator - PL/PgSQL language exists + - checking if database "opennms" is unicode... ALREADY UNICODE + - Creating imports directory (/opt/opennms/etc/imports... OK + - Checking for old import files in /opt/opennms/etc... DONE + INFO 16/08/15 17:27:liquibase: Reading from databasechangelog + Installer completed successfully! + + ============================================================================== + OpenNMS Upgrader + ============================================================================== + + OpenNMS is currently stopped + Found upgrade task SnmpInterfaceRrdMigratorOnline + Found upgrade task KscReportsMigrator + Found upgrade task JettyConfigMigratorOffline + Found upgrade task DataCollectionConfigMigratorOffline + Processing RequisitionsMigratorOffline: Remove non-ip-snmp-primary and non-ip-interfaces from requisitions: NMS-5630, NMS-5571 + - Running pre-execution phase + Backing up: /opt/opennms/etc/imports + - Running post-execution phase + Removing backup /opt/opennms/etc/datacollection.zip + + Finished in 0 seconds + + Upgrade completed successfully! + +### Firewall configurations to Allow OpenNMS ### + +Here we have to allow OpenNMS management interface port 8980 through firewall or router to access the management web interface from the remote systems. So use the following commands to do so. + + [root@open-nms etc]# firewall-cmd --permanent --add-port=8980/tcp + [root@open-nms etc]# firewall-cmd --reload + +### Start OpenNMS and Login to Web Interface ### + +Let's start OpenNMS service and enable to it start at each bootup by using the below command. + + [root@open-nms ~]#systemctl start opennms + [root@open-nms ~]#systemctl enable opennms + +Once the services are up are ready to go with its web management interface. Open your web browser and access it with your server's IP address and 8980 port. + +http://servers_ip:8980/ + +Give the username and password where as the default username and password is admin/admin. + +![opennms login](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/opennms-login.png) + +After successful authentication with your provided username and password you will be directed towards the the Home page of OpenNMS where you can configure the new monitoring devices/nodes/services etc. + +![opennms home](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/opennms-home.png) + +### Conclusion ### + +Congratulations! we have successfully setup OpenNMS on CentOS 7.1. So, at the end of this tutorial, you are now able to install and configure OpenNMS with its prerequisites that included PostgreSQL and JAVA setup. So let's enjoy with the great network monitoring system with open source roots using OpenNMS that provide a bevy of features at no cost than their high-end competitors, and can scale to monitor large numbers of network nodes. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/monitoring-2/install-configure-opennms-centos-7-x/ + +作者：[Kashif Siddique][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/kashifs/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20150906 How to install Suricata intrusion detection system on Linux.md b/sources/tech/20150906 How to install Suricata intrusion detection system on Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..fe4a784d5a --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20150906 How to install Suricata intrusion detection system on Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,197 @@ +How to install Suricata intrusion detection system on Linux +================================================================================ +With incessant security threats, intrusion detection system (IDS) has become one of the most critical requirements in today's data center environments. However, as more and more servers upgrade their NICs to 10GB/40GB Ethernet, it is increasingly difficult to implement compute-intensive intrusion detection on commodity hardware at line rates. One approach to scaling IDS performance is **multi-threaded IDS**, where CPU-intensive deep packet inspection workload is parallelized into multiple concurrent tasks. Such parallelized inspection can exploit multi-core hardware to scale up IDS throughput easily. Two well-known open-source efforts in this area are [Suricata][1] and [Bro][2]. + +In this tutorial, I am going to demonstrate **how to install and configure Suricata IDS on Linux server**. + +### Install Suricata IDS on Linux ### + +Let's build Suricata from the source. You first need to install several required dependencies as follows. + +#### Install Dependencies on Debian, Ubuntu or Linux Mint #### + + $ sudo apt-get install wget build-essential libpcre3-dev libpcre3-dbg automake autoconf libtool libpcap-dev libnet1-dev libyaml-dev zlib1g-dev libcap-ng-dev libjansson-dev + +#### Install Dependencies on CentOS, Fedora or RHEL #### + + $ sudo yum install wget libpcap-devel libnet-devel pcre-devel gcc-c++ automake autoconf libtool make libyaml-devel zlib-devel file-devel jansson-devel nss-devel + +Once you install all required packages, go ahead and install Suricata as follows. + +First, download the latest Suricata source code from [http://suricata-ids.org/download/][3], and build it. As of this writing, the latest version is 2.0.8. + + $ wget http://www.openinfosecfoundation.org/download/suricata-2.0.8.tar.gz + $ tar -xvf suricata-2.0.8.tar.gz + $ cd suricata-2.0.8 + $ ./configure --sysconfdir=/etc --localstatedir=/var + +Here is the example output of configuration. + + Suricata Configuration: + AF_PACKET support: yes + PF_RING support: no + NFQueue support: no + NFLOG support: no + IPFW support: no + DAG enabled: no + Napatech enabled: no + Unix socket enabled: yes + Detection enabled: yes + + libnss support: yes + libnspr support: yes + libjansson support: yes + Prelude support: no + PCRE jit: yes + LUA support: no + libluajit: no + libgeoip: no + Non-bundled htp: no + Old barnyard2 support: no + CUDA enabled: no + +Now compile and install it. + + $ make + $ sudo make install + +Suricata source code comes with default configuration files. Let's install these default configuration files as follows. + + $ sudo make install-conf + +As you know, Suricata is useless without IDS rule sets. Conveniently, the Makefile comes with IDS rule installation option. To install IDS rules, run the following command. + + $ sudo make install-rules + +The above rule installation command will download the current snapshot of community rulesets available from [EmergingThreats.net][4], and store them under /etc/suricata/rules. + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/691/20482669553_8b67632277_c.jpg) + +### Configure Suricata IDS the First Time ### + +Now it's time to configure Suricata. The configuration file is located at **/etc/suricata/suricata.yaml**. Open the file with a text editor for editing. + + $ sudo vi /etc/suricata/suricata.yaml + +Here are some basic setup for you to get started. + +The "default-log-dir" keyword should point to the location of Suricata log files. + + default-log-dir: /var/log/suricata/ + +Under "vars" section, you will find several important variables used by Suricata. "HOME_NET" should point to the local network to be inspected by Suricata. "!$HOME_NET" (assigned to EXTERNAL_NET) refers to any other networks than the local network. "XXX_PORTS" indicates the port number(s) use by different services. Note that Suricata can automatically detect HTTP traffic regardless of the port it uses. So it is not critical to specify the HTTP_PORTS variable correctly. + + vars: + HOME_NET: "[192.168.122.0/24]" + EXTERNAL_NET: "!$HOME_NET" + HTTP_PORTS: "80" + SHELLCODE_PORTS: "!80" + SSH_PORTS: 22 + +The "host-os-policy" section is used to defend against some well-known attacks which exploit the behavior of an operating system's network stack (e.g., TCP reassembly) to evade detection. As a counter measure, modern IDS came up with so-called "target-based" inspection, where inspection engine fine-tunes its detection algorithm based on a target operating system of the traffic. Thus, if you know what OS individual local hosts are running, you can feed that information to Suricata to potentially enhance its detection rate. This is when "host-os-policy" section is used. In this example, the default IDS policy is Linux; if no OS information is known for a particular IP address, Suricata will apply Linux-based inspection. When traffic for 192.168.122.0/28 and 192.168.122.155 is captured, Suricata will apply Windows-based inspection policy. + + host-os-policy: + # These are Windows machines. + windows: [192.168.122.0/28, 192.168.122.155] + bsd: [] + bsd-right: [] + old-linux: [] + # Make the default policy Linux. + linux: [0.0.0.0/0] + old-solaris: [] + solaris: ["::1"] + hpux10: [] + hpux11: [] + irix: [] + macos: [] + vista: [] + windows2k3: [] + +Under "threading" section, you can specify CPU affinity for different Suricata threads. By default, [CPU affinity][5] is disabled ("set-cpu-affinity: no"), meaning that Suricata threads will be scheduled on any available CPU cores. By default, Suricata will create one "detect" thread for each CPU core. You can adjust this behavior by specifying "detect-thread-ratio: N". This will create N*M detect threads, where M is the total number of CPU cores on the host. + + threading: + set-cpu-affinity: no + detect-thread-ratio: 1.5 + +With the above threading settings, Suricata will create 1.5*M detection threads, where M is the total number of CPU cores on the system. + +For more information about Suricata configuration, you can read the default configuration file itself, which is heavily commented for clarity. + +### Perform Intrusion Detection with Suricata ### + +Now it's time to test-run Suricata. Before launching it, there's one more step to do. + +When you are using pcap capture mode, it is highly recommended to turn off any packet offloead features (e.g., LRO/GRO) on the NIC which Suricata is listening on, as those features may interfere with live packet capture. + +Here is how to turn off LRO/GRO on the network interface eth0: + + $ sudo ethtool -K eth0 gro off lro off + +Note that depending on your NIC, you may see the following warning, which you can ignore. It simply means that your NIC does not support LRO. + + Cannot change large-receive-offload + +Suricata supports a number of running modes. A runmode determines how different threads are used for IDS. The following command lists all [available runmodes][6]. + + $ sudo /usr/local/bin/suricata --list-runmodes + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5730/20481140934_25080d04d7_c.jpg) + +The default runmode used by Suricata is autofp (which stands for "auto flow pinned load balancing"). In this mode, packets from each distinct flow are assigned to a single detect thread. Flows are assigned to threads with the lowest number of unprocessed packets. + +Finally, let's start Suricata, and see it in action. + + $ sudo /usr/local/bin/suricata -c /etc/suricata/suricata.yaml -i eth0 --init-errors-fatal + +![](https://farm1.staticflickr.com/701/21077552366_c577746e36_c.jpg) + +In this example, we are monitoring a network interface eth0 on a 8-core system. As shown above, Suricata creates 13 packet processing threads and 3 management threads. The packet processing threads consist of one PCAP packet capture thread, and 12 detect threads (equal to 8*1.5). This means that the packets captured by one capture thread are load-balanced to 12 detect threads for IDS. The management threads are one flow manager and two counter/stats related threads. + +Here is a thread-view of Suricata process (plotted by [htop][7]). + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5775/20482669593_174f8f41cb_c.jpg) + +Suricata detection logs are stored in /var/log/suricata directory. + + $ tail -f /var/log/suricata/fast.log + +---------- + + 04/01/2015-15:47:12.559075 [**] [1:2200074:1] SURICATA TCPv4 invalid checksum [**] [Classification: (null)] [Priority: 3] {TCP} 172.16.253.158:22 -> 172.16.253.1:46997 + 04/01/2015-15:49:06.565901 [**] [1:2200074:1] SURICATA TCPv4 invalid checksum [**] [Classification: (null)] [Priority: 3] {TCP} 172.16.253.158:22 -> 172.16.253.1:46317 + 04/01/2015-15:49:06.566759 [**] [1:2200074:1] SURICATA TCPv4 invalid checksum [**] [Classification: (null)] [Priority: 3] {TCP} 172.16.253.158:22 -> 172.16.253.1:46317 + +For ease of import, the log is also available in JSON format: + + $ tail -f /var/log/suricata/eve.json + +---------- + {"timestamp":"2015-04-01T15:49:06.565901","event_type":"alert","src_ip":"172.16.253.158","src_port":22,"dest_ip":"172.16.253.1","dest_port":46317,"proto":"TCP","alert":{"action":"allowed","gid":1,"signature_id":2200074,"rev":1,"signature":"SURICATA TCPv4 invalid checksum","category":"","severity":3}} + {"timestamp":"2015-04-01T15:49:06.566759","event_type":"alert","src_ip":"172.16.253.158","src_port":22,"dest_ip":"172.16.253.1","dest_port":46317,"proto":"TCP","alert":{"action":"allowed","gid":1,"signature_id":2200074,"rev":1,"signature":"SURICATA TCPv4 invalid checksum","category":"","severity":3}} + +### Conclusion ### + +In this tutorial, I demonstrated how you can set up Suricata IDS on a multi-core Linux server. Unlike single-threaded [Snort IDS][8], Suricata can easily benefit from multi-core/many-core hardware with multi-threading. There is great deal of customization in Suricata to maximize its performance and detection coverage. Suricata folks maintain [online Wiki][9] quite well, so I strongly recommend you check it out if you want to deploy Suricata in your environment. + +Are you currently using Suricata? If so, feel free to share your experience. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://xmodulo.com/install-suricata-intrusion-detection-system-linux.html + +作者：[Dan Nanni][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://xmodulo.com/author/nanni +[1]:http://suricata-ids.org/ +[2]:https://www.bro.org/ +[3]:http://suricata-ids.org/download/ +[4]:http://rules.emergingthreats.net/ +[5]:http://xmodulo.com/run-program-process-specific-cpu-cores-linux.html +[6]:https://redmine.openinfosecfoundation.org/projects/suricata/wiki/Runmodes +[7]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/view-threads-process-linux.html +[8]:http://xmodulo.com/how-to-compile-and-install-snort-from-source-code-on-ubuntu.html +[9]:https://redmine.openinfosecfoundation.org/projects/suricata/wiki \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20150908 How to Run ISO Files Directly From the HDD with GRUB2.md b/sources/tech/20150908 How to Run ISO Files Directly From the HDD with GRUB2.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7de3640532 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20150908 How to Run ISO Files Directly From the HDD with GRUB2.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +How to Run ISO Files Directly From the HDD with GRUB2 +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/rundirectiso-featured.png) + +Most Linux distros offer a live environment, which you can boot up from a USB drive, for you to test the system without installing. You can either use it to evaluate the distro or as a disposable OS. While it is easy to copy these onto a USB disk, in certain cases one might want to run the same ISO image often or run different ones regularly. GRUB 2 can be configured so that you do not need to burn the ISOs to disk or use a USB drive, but need to run a live environment directly form the boot menu. + +### Obtaining and checking bootable ISO images ### + +To obtain an ISO image, you should usually visit the website of the desired distribution and download any image that is compatible with your setup. If the image can be started from a USB, it should be able to start from the GRUB menu as well. + +Once the image has finished downloading, you should check its integrity by running a simple md5 check on it. This will output a long combination of numbers and alphanumeric characters + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/rundirectiso-md5.png) + +which you can compare against the MD5 checksum provided on the download page. The two should be identical. + +### Setting up GRUB 2 ### + +ISO images contain full systems. All you need to do is direct GRUB2 to the appropriate file, and tell it where it can find the kernel and the initramdisk or initram filesystem (depending on which one your distribution uses). + +In this example, a Kubuntu 15.04 live environment will be set up to run on an Ubuntu 14.04 box as a Grub menu item. It should work for most newer Ubuntu-based systems and derivatives. If you have a different system or want to achieve something else, you can get some ideas on how to do this from one of [these files][1], although it will require a little experience with GRUB. + +In this example the file `kubuntu-15.04-desktop-amd64.iso` + +lives in `/home/maketecheasier/TempISOs/` on `/dev/sda1`. + +To make GRUB2 look for it in the right place, you need to edit the + + /etc/grub.d40-custom + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/rundirectiso-40-custom-empty.png) + +To start Kubuntu from the above location, add the following code (after adjusting it to your needs) below the commented section, without modifying the original content. + + menuentry "Kubuntu 15.04 ISO" { + set isofile="/home/maketecheasier/TempISOs/kubuntu-15.04-desktop-amd64.iso" + loopback loop (hd0,1)$isofile + echo "Starting $isofile..." + linux (loop)/casper/vmlinuz.efi boot=casper iso-scan/filename=${isofile} quiet splash + initrd (loop)/casper/initrd.lz + } + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/rundirectiso-40-custom-new.png) + +### Breaking down the above code ### + +First set up a variable named `$menuentry`. This is where the ISO file is located. If you want to change to a different ISO, you need to change the bit where it says set `isofile="/path/to/file/name-of-iso-file-.iso"`. + +The next line is where you specify the loopback device; you also need to give it the right partition number. This is the bit where it says + + loopback loop (hd0,1)$isofile + +Note the hd0,1 bit; it is important. This means first HDD, first partition (`/dev/sda1`). + +GRUB’s naming here is slightly confusing. For HDDs, it starts counting from “0”, making the first HDD #0, the second one #1, the third one #2, etc. However, for partitions, it will start counting from 1. First partition is #1, second is #2, etc. There might be a good reason for this but not necessarily a sane one (UX-wise it is a disaster, to be sure).. + +This makes fist disk, first partition, which in Linux would usually look something like `/dev/sda1` become `hd0,1` in GRUB2. The second disk, third partition would be `hd1,3`, and so on. + +The next important line is + + linux (loop)/casper/vmlinuz.efi boot=casper iso-scan/filename=${isofile} quiet splash + +It will load the kernel image. On newer Ubuntu Live CDs, this would be in the `/casper` directory and called `vmlinuz.efi`. If you use a different system, your kernel might be missing the `.efi` extension or be located somewhere else entirely (You can easily check this by opening the ISO file with an archive manager and looking inside `/casper.`). The last options, `quiet splash`, would be your regular GRUB options, if you care to change them. + +Finally + + initrd (loop)/casper/initrd.lz + +will load `initrd`, which is responsible to load a RAMDisk into memory for bootup. + +### Booting into your live system ### + +To make it all work, you will only need to update GRUB2 + + sudo update-grub + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/rundirectiso-updare-grub.png) + +When you reboot your system, you should be presented with a new GRUB entry which will allow you to load into the ISO image you’ve just set up. + +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/rundirectiso-grub-menu.png) + +Selecting the new entry should boot you into the live environment, just like booting from a DVD or USB would. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/run-iso-files-hdd-grub2/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ +[1]:http://git.marmotte.net/git/glim/tree/grub2 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20150914 Display Awesome Linux Logo With Basic Hardware Info Using screenfetch and linux_logo Tools.md b/sources/tech/20150914 Display Awesome Linux Logo With Basic Hardware Info Using screenfetch and linux_logo Tools.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6640454f07 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20150914 Display Awesome Linux Logo With Basic Hardware Info Using screenfetch and linux_logo Tools.md @@ -0,0 +1,227 @@ +Display Awesome Linux Logo With Basic Hardware Info Using screenfetch and linux_logo Tools +================================================================================ +Do you want to display a super cool logo of your Linux distribution along with basic hardware information? Look no further try awesome screenfetch and linux_logo utilities. + +### Say hello to screenfetch ### + +screenFetch is a CLI bash script to show system/theme info in screenshots. It runs on a Linux, OS X, FreeBSD and many other Unix-like system. From the man page: + +> This handy Bash script can be used to generate one of those nifty terminal theme information + ASCII distribution logos you see in everyone's screenshots nowadays. It will auto-detect your distribution and display an ASCII version of that distribution's logo and some valuable information to the right. + +#### Installing screenfetch on Linux #### + +Open the Terminal application. Simply type the following [apt-get command][1] on a Debian or Ubuntu or Mint Linux based system: + + $ sudo apt-get install screenfetch + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/ubuntu-debian-linux-apt-get-install-screenfetch.jpg) + +Fig.01: Installing screenfetch using apt-get + +#### Installing screenfetch Mac OS X #### + +Type the following command: + + $ brew install screenfetch + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/apple-mac-osx-install-screenfetch.jpg) + +Fig.02: Installing screenfetch using brew command + +#### Installing screenfetch on FreeBSD #### + +Type the following pkg command: + + $ sudo pkg install sysutils/screenfetch + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/freebsd-install-pkg-screenfetch.jpg) + +Fig.03: FreeBSD install screenfetch using pkg + +#### Installing screenfetch on Fedora Linux #### + +Type the following dnf command: + + $ sudo dnf install screenfetch + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/fedora-dnf-install-screenfetch.jpg) + +Fig.04: Fedora Linux 22 install screenfetch using dnf + +#### How do I use screefetch utility? #### + +Simply type the following command: + + $ screenfetch + +Here is the output from various operating system: + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/fedora-screenfetch-300x193.jpg) + +Screenfetch on Fedora + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/screenfetch-osx-300x213.jpg) + +Screenfetch on OS X + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/screenfetch-freebsd-300x143.jpg) + +Screenfetch on FreeBSD + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/debian-ubutnu-screenfetch-outputs-300x279.jpg) + +Screenfetch on Debian Linux + +#### Take screenshot #### + +To take a screenshot and to save a file, enter: + + $ screenfetch -s + +You will see a screenshot file at ~/Desktop/screenFetch-*.jpg. To take a screenshot and upload to imgur directly, enter: + + $ screenfetch -su imgur + +**Sample outputs:** + + -/+:. veryv@Viveks-MacBook-Pro + :++++. OS: 64bit Mac OS X 10.10.5 14F27 + /+++/. Kernel: x86_64 Darwin 14.5.0 + .:-::- .+/:-``.::- Uptime: 3d 1h 36m + .:/++++++/::::/++++++/:` Packages: 56 + .:///////////////////////:` Shell: bash 3.2.57 + ////////////////////////` Resolution: 2560x1600 1920x1200 + -+++++++++++++++++++++++` DE: Aqua + /++++++++++++++++++++++/ WM: Quartz Compositor + /sssssssssssssssssssssss. WM Theme: Blue + :ssssssssssssssssssssssss- Font: Not Found + osssssssssssssssssssssssso/` CPU: Intel Core i5-4288U CPU @ 2.60GHz + `syyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy+` GPU: Intel Iris + `ossssssssssssssssssssss/ RAM: 6405MB / 8192MB + :ooooooooooooooooooo+. + `:+oo+/:-..-:/+o+/- + + Taking shot in 3.. 2.. 1.. 0. + ==> Uploading your screenshot now...your screenshot can be viewed at http://imgur.com/HKIUznn + +You can visit [http://imgur.com/HKIUznn][2] to see uploaded screenshot. + +### Say hello to linux_logo ### + +The linux_logo program generates a color ANSI picture of a penguin which includes some system information obtained from the /proc filesystem. + +#### Installation #### + +Simply type the following command as per your Linux distro. + +#### Debian/Ubutnu/Mint #### + + # apt-get install linux_logo + +#### CentOS/RHEL/Older Fedora #### + + # yum install linux_logo + +#### Fedora Linux v22+ or newer #### + + # dnf install linux_logo + +#### Run it #### + +Simply type the following command: + + $ linux_logo + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/debian-linux_logo.jpg) + +linux_logo in action + +#### But wait, there's more! #### + +You can see a list of compiled in logos using: + + $ linux_logo -f -L list + +**Sample outputs:** + + Available Built-in Logos: + Num Type Ascii Name Description + 1 Classic Yes aix AIX Logo + 2 Banner Yes bsd_banner FreeBSD Logo + 3 Classic Yes bsd FreeBSD Logo + 4 Classic Yes irix Irix Logo + 5 Banner Yes openbsd_banner OpenBSD Logo + 6 Classic Yes openbsd OpenBSD Logo + 7 Banner Yes solaris The Default Banner Logos + 8 Banner Yes banner The Default Banner Logo + 9 Banner Yes banner-simp Simplified Banner Logo + 10 Classic Yes classic The Default Classic Logo + 11 Classic Yes classic-nodots The Classic Logo, No Periods + 12 Classic Yes classic-simp Classic No Dots Or Letters + 13 Classic Yes core Core Linux Logo + 14 Banner Yes debian_banner_2 Debian Banner 2 + 15 Banner Yes debian_banner Debian Banner (white) + 16 Classic Yes debian Debian Swirl Logos + 17 Classic Yes debian_old Debian Old Penguin Logos + 18 Classic Yes gnu_linux Classic GNU/Linux + 19 Banner Yes mandrake Mandrakelinux(TM) Banner + 20 Banner Yes mandrake_banner Mandrake(TM) Linux Banner + 21 Banner Yes mandriva Mandriva(TM) Linux Banner + 22 Banner Yes pld PLD Linux banner + 23 Classic Yes raspi An ASCII Raspberry Pi logo + 24 Banner Yes redhat RedHat Banner (white) + 25 Banner Yes slackware Slackware Logo + 26 Banner Yes sme SME Server Banner Logo + 27 Banner Yes sourcemage_ban Source Mage GNU/Linux banner + 28 Banner Yes sourcemage Source Mage GNU/Linux large + 29 Banner Yes suse SUSE Logo + 30 Banner Yes ubuntu Ubuntu Logo + + Do "linux_logo -L num" where num is from above to get the appropriate logo. + Remember to also use -a to get ascii version. + +To see aix logo, enter: + + $ linux_logo -f -L aix + +To see openbsd logo: + + $ linux_logo -f -L openbsd + +Or just see some random Linux logo: + + $ linux_logo -f -L random_xy + +You [can combine bash for loop as follows to display various logos][3], enter: + +![](http://s0.cyberciti.org/uploads/cms/2015/09/linux-logo-fun.gif) + +Gif 01: linux_logo and bash for loop for fun and profie + +### Getting help ### + +Simply type the following command: + + $ screefetch -h + $ linux_logo -h + +**References** + +- [screenFetch home page][4] +- [linux_logo home page][5] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.cyberciti.biz/hardware/howto-display-linux-logo-in-bash-terminal-using-screenfetch-linux_logo/ + +作者：Vivek Gite +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://www.cyberciti.biz/tips/linux-debian-package-management-cheat-sheet.html +[2]:http://imgur.com/HKIUznn +[3]:http://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/bash-for-loop/ +[4]:https://github.com/KittyKatt/screenFetch +[5]:https://github.com/deater/linux_logo \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20150917 A Repository with 44 Years of Unix Evolution.md b/sources/tech/20150917 A Repository with 44 Years of Unix Evolution.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..807cedf01d --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20150917 A Repository with 44 Years of Unix Evolution.md @@ -0,0 +1,202 @@ +A Repository with 44 Years of Unix Evolution +================================================================================ +### Abstract ### + +The evolution of the Unix operating system is made available as a version-control repository, covering the period from its inception in 1972 as a five thousand line kernel, to 2015 as a widely-used 26 million line system. The repository contains 659 thousand commits and 2306 merges. The repository employs the commonly used Git system for its storage, and is hosted on the popular GitHub archive. It has been created by synthesizing with custom software 24 snapshots of systems developed at Bell Labs, Berkeley University, and the 386BSD team, two legacy repositories, and the modern repository of the open source FreeBSD system. In total, 850 individual contributors are identified, the early ones through primary research. The data set can be used for empirical research in software engineering, information systems, and software archaeology. + +### 1 Introduction ### + +The Unix operating system stands out as a major engineering breakthrough due to its exemplary design, its numerous technical contributions, its development model, and its widespread use. The design of the Unix programming environment has been characterized as one offering unusual simplicity, power, and elegance [[1][1]]. On the technical side, features that can be directly attributed to Unix or were popularized by it include [[2][2]]: the portable implementation of the kernel in a high level language; a hierarchical file system; compatible file, device, networking, and inter-process I/O; the pipes and filters architecture; virtual file systems; and the shell as a user-selectable regular process. A large community contributed software to Unix from its early days [[3][3]], [[4][4],pp. 65-72]. This community grew immensely over time and worked using what are now termed open source software development methods [[5][5],pp. 440-442]. Unix and its intellectual descendants have also helped the spread of the C and C++ programming languages, parser and lexical analyzer generators (*yacc, lex*), document preparation tools (*troff, eqn, tbl*), scripting languages (*awk, sed, Perl*), TCP/IP networking, and configuration management systems (*SCCS, RCS, Subversion, Git*), while also forming a large part of the modern internet infrastructure and the web. + +Luckily, important Unix material of historical importance has survived and is nowadays openly available. Although Unix was initially distributed with relatively restrictive licenses, the most significant parts of its early development have been released by one of its right-holders (Caldera International) under a liberal license. Combining these parts with software that was developed or released as open source software by the University of California, Berkeley and the FreeBSD Project provides coverage of the system's development over a period ranging from June 20th 1972 until today. + +Curating and processing available snapshots as well as old and modern configuration management repositories allows the reconstruction of a new synthetic Git repository that combines under a single roof most of the available data. This repository documents in a digital form the detailed evolution of an important digital artefact over a period of 44 years. The following sections describe the repository's structure and contents (Section [II][6]), the way it was created (Section [III][7]), and how it can be used (Section [IV][8]). + +### 2 Data Overview ### + +The 1GB Unix history Git repository is made available for cloning on [GitHub][9].[1][10] Currently[2][11] the repository contains 659 thousand commits and 2306 merges from about 850 contributors. The contributors include 23 from the Bell Labs staff, 158 from Berkeley's Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG), and 660 from the FreeBSD Project. + +The repository starts its life at a tag identified as *Epoch*, which contains only licensing information and its modern README file. Various tag and branch names identify points of significance. + +- *Research-VX* tags correspond to six research editions that came out of Bell Labs. These start with *Research-V1* (4768 lines of PDP-11 assembly) and end with *Research-V7* (1820 mostly C files, 324kLOC). +- *Bell-32V* is the port of the 7th Edition Unix to the DEC/VAX architecture. +- *BSD-X* tags correspond to 15 snapshots released from Berkeley. +- *386BSD-X* tags correspond to two open source versions of the system, with the Intel 386 architecture kernel code mainly written by Lynne and William Jolitz. +- *FreeBSD-release/X* tags and branches mark 116 releases coming from the FreeBSD project. + +In addition, branches with a *-Snapshot-Development* suffix denote commits that have been synthesized from a time-ordered sequence of a snapshot's files, while tags with a *-VCS-Development* suffix mark the point along an imported version control history branch where a particular release occurred. + +The repository's history includes commits from the earliest days of the system's development, such as the following. + + commit c9f643f59434f14f774d61ee3856972b8c3905b1 + Author: Dennis Ritchie + Date: Mon Dec 2 18:18:02 1974 -0500 + Research V5 development + Work on file usr/sys/dmr/kl.c + +Merges between releases that happened along the system's evolution, such as the development of BSD 3 from BSD 2 and Unix 32/V, are also correctly represented in the Git repository as graph nodes with two parents. + +More importantly, the repository is constructed in a way that allows *git blame*, which annotates source code lines with the version, date, and author associated with their first appearance, to produce the expected code provenance results. For example, checking out the *BSD-4* tag, and running git blame on the kernel's *pipe.c* file will show lines written by Ken Thompson in 1974, 1975, and 1979, and by Bill Joy in 1980. This allows the automatic (though computationally expensive) detection of the code's provenance at any point of time. + +![](http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/provenance.png) + +Figure 1: Code provenance across significant Unix releases. + +As can be seen in Figure [1][12], a modern version of Unix (FreeBSD 9) still contains visible chunks of code from BSD 4.3, BSD 4.3 Net/2, and FreeBSD 2.0. Interestingly, the Figure shows that code developed during the frantic dash to create an open source operating system out of the code released by Berkeley (386BSD and FreeBSD 1.0) does not seem to have survived. The oldest code in FreeBSD 9 appears to be an 18-line sequence in the C library file timezone.c, which can also be found in the 7th Edition Unix file with the same name and a time stamp of January 10th, 1979 - 36 years ago. + +### 3 Data Collection and Processing ### + +The goal of the project is to consolidate data concerning the evolution of Unix in a form that helps the study of the system's evolution, by entering them into a modern revision repository. This involves collecting the data, curating them, and synthesizing them into a single Git repository. + +![](http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/branches.png) + +Figure 2: Imported Unix snapshots, repositories, and their mergers. + +The project is based on three types of data (see Figure [2][13]). First, snapshots of early released versions, which were obtained from the [Unix Heritage Society archive][14],[3][15] the [CD-ROM images][16] containing the full source archives of CSRG,[4][17] the [OldLinux site][18],[5][19] and the [FreeBSD archive][20].[6][21] Second, past and current repositories, namely the CSRG SCCS [[6][22]] repository, the FreeBSD 1 CVS repository, and the [Git mirror of modern FreeBSD development][23].[7][24] The first two were obtained from the same sources as the corresponding snapshots. + +The last, and most labour intensive, source of data was **primary research**. The release snapshots do not provide information regarding their ancestors and the contributors of each file. Therefore, these pieces of information had to be determined through primary research. The authorship information was mainly obtained by reading author biographies, research papers, internal memos, and old documentation scans; by reading and automatically processing source code and manual page markup; by communicating via email with people who were there at the time; by posting a query on the Unix *StackExchange* site; by looking at the location of files (in early editions the kernel source code was split into `usr/sys/dmr` and `/usr/sys/ken`); and by propagating authorship from research papers and manual pages to source code and from one release to others. (Interestingly, the 1st and 2nd Research Edition manual pages have an "owner" section, listing the person (e.g. *ken*) associated with the corresponding system command, file, system call, or library function. This section was not there in the 4th Edition, and resurfaced as the "Author" section in BSD releases.) Precise details regarding the source of the authorship information are documented in the project's files that are used for mapping Unix source code files to their authors and the corresponding commit messages. Finally, information regarding merges between source code bases was obtained from a [BSD family tree maintained by the NetBSD project][25].[8][26] + +The software and data files that were developed as part of this project, are [available online][27],[9][28] and, with appropriate network, CPU and disk resources, they can be used to recreate the repository from scratch. The authorship information for major releases is stored in files under the project's `author-path` directory. These contain lines with a regular expressions for a file path followed by the identifier of the corresponding author. Multiple authors can also be specified. The regular expressions are processed sequentially, so that a catch-all expression at the end of the file can specify a release's default authors. To avoid repetition, a separate file with a `.au` suffix is used to map author identifiers into their names and emails. One such file has been created for every community associated with the system's evolution: Bell Labs, Berkeley, 386BSD, and FreeBSD. For the sake of authenticity, emails for the early Bell Labs releases are listed in UUCP notation (e.g. `research!ken`). The FreeBSD author identifier map, required for importing the early CVS repository, was constructed by extracting the corresponding data from the project's modern Git repository. In total the commented authorship files (828 rules) comprise 1107 lines, and there are another 640 lines mapping author identifiers to names. + +The curation of the project's data sources has been codified into a 168-line `Makefile`. It involves the following steps. + +**Fetching** Copying and cloning about 11GB of images, archives, and repositories from remote sites. + +**Tooling** Obtaining an archiver for old PDP-11 archives from 2.9 BSD, and adjusting it to compile under modern versions of Unix; compiling the 4.3 BSD *compress* program, which is no longer part of modern Unix systems, in order to decompress the 386BSD distributions. + +**Organizing** Unpacking archives using tar and *cpio*; combining three 6th Research Edition directories; unpacking all 1 BSD archives using the old PDP-11 archiver; mounting CD-ROM images so that they can be processed as file systems; combining the 8 and 62 386BSD floppy disk images into two separate files. + +**Cleaning** Restoring the 1st Research Edition kernel source code files, which were obtained from printouts through optical character recognition, into a format close to their original state; patching some 7th Research Edition source code files; removing metadata files and other files that were added after a release, to avoid obtaining erroneous time stamp information; patching corrupted SCCS files; processing the early FreeBSD CVS repository by removing CVS symbols assigned to multiple revisions with a custom Perl script, deleting CVS *Attic* files clashing with live ones, and converting the CVS repository into a Git one using *cvs2svn*. + +An interesting part of the repository representation is how snapshots are imported and linked together in a way that allows *git blame* to perform its magic. Snapshots are imported into the repository as sequential commits based on the time stamp of each file. When all files have been imported the repository is tagged with the name of the corresponding release. At that point one could delete those files, and begin the import of the next snapshot. Note that the *git blame* command works by traversing backwards a repository's history, and using heuristics to detect code moving and being copied within or across files. Consequently, deleted snapshots would create a discontinuity between them, and prevent the tracing of code between them. + +Instead, before the next snapshot is imported, all the files of the preceding snapshot are moved into a hidden look-aside directory named `.ref` (reference). They remain there, until all files of the next snapshot have been imported, at which point they are deleted. Because every file in the `.ref` directory matches exactly an original file, *git blame* can determine how source code moves from one version to the next via the `.ref` file, without ever displaying the `.ref` file. To further help the detection of code provenance, and to increase the representation's realism, each release is represented as a merge between the branch with the incremental file additions (*-Development*) and the preceding release. + +For a period in the 1980s, only a subset of the files developed at Berkeley were under SCCS version control. During that period our unified repository contains imports of both the SCCS commits, and the snapshots' incremental additions. At the point of each release, the SCCS commit with the nearest time stamp is found and is marked as a merge with the release's incremental import branch. These merges can be seen in the middle of Figure [2][29]. + +The synthesis of the various data sources into a single repository is mainly performed by two scripts. A 780-line Perl script (`import-dir.pl`) can export the (real or synthesized) commit history from a single data source (snapshot directory, SCCS repository, or Git repository) in the *Git fast export* format. The output is a simple text format that Git tools use to import and export commits. Among other things, the script takes as arguments the mapping of files to contributors, the mapping between contributor login names and their full names, the commit(s) from which the import will be merged, which files to process and which to ignore, and the handling of "reference" files. A 450-line shell script creates the Git repository and calls the Perl script with appropriate arguments to import each one of the 27 available historical data sources. The shell script also runs 30 tests that compare the repository at specific tags against the corresponding data sources, verify the appearance and disappearance of look-aside directories, and look for regressions in the count of tree branches and merges and the output of *git blame* and *git log*. Finally, *git* is called to garbage-collect and compress the repository from its initial 6GB size down to the distributed 1GB. + +### 4 Data Uses ### + +The data set can be used for empirical research in software engineering, information systems, and software archeology. Through its unique uninterrupted coverage of a period of more than 40 years, it can inform work on software evolution and handovers across generations. With thousandfold increases in processing speed and million-fold increases in storage capacity during that time, the data set can also be used to study the co-evolution of software and hardware technology. The move of the software's development from research labs, to academia, and to the open source community can be used to study the effects of organizational culture on software development. The repository can also be used to study how notable individuals, such as Turing Award winners (Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson) and captains of the IT industry (Bill Joy and Eric Schmidt), actually programmed. Another phenomenon worthy of study concerns the longevity of code, either at the level of individual lines, or as complete systems that were at times distributed with Unix (Ingres, Lisp, Pascal, Ratfor, Snobol, TMG), as well as the factors that lead to code's survival or demise. Finally, because the data set stresses Git, the underlying software repository storage technology, to its limits, it can be used to drive engineering progress in the field of revision management systems. + +![](http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/metrics.png) + +Figure 3: Code style evolution along Unix releases. + +Figure [3][30], which depicts trend lines (obtained with R's local polynomial regression fitting function) of some interesting code metrics along 36 major releases of Unix, demonstrates the evolution of code style and programming language use over very long timescales. This evolution can be driven by software and hardware technology affordances and requirements, software construction theory, and even social forces. The dates in the Figure have been calculated as the average date of all files appearing in a given release. As can be seen in it, over the past 40 years the mean length of identifiers and file names has steadily increased from 4 and 6 characters to 7 and 11 characters, respectively. We can also see less steady increases in the number of comments and decreases in the use of the *goto* statement, as well as the virtual disappearance of the *register* type modifier. + +### 5 Further Work ### + +Many things can be done to increase the repository's faithfulness and usefulness. Given that the build process is shared as open source code, it is easy to contribute additions and fixes through GitHub pull requests. The most useful community contribution would be to increase the coverage of imported snapshot files that are attributed to a specific author. Currently, about 90 thousand files (out of a total of 160 thousand) are getting assigned an author through a default rule. Similarly, there are about 250 authors (primarily early FreeBSD ones) for which only the identifier is known. Both are listed in the build repository's unmatched directory, and contributions are welcomed. Furthermore, the BSD SCCS and the FreeBSD CVS commits that share the same author and time-stamp can be coalesced into a single Git commit. Support can be added for importing the SCCS file comment fields, in order to bring into the repository the corresponding metadata. Finally, and most importantly, more branches of open source systems can be added, such as NetBSD OpenBSD, DragonFlyBSD, and *illumos*. Ideally, current right holders of other important historical Unix releases, such as System III, System V, NeXTSTEP, and SunOS, will release their systems under a license that would allow their incorporation into this repository for study. + +#### Acknowledgements #### + +The author thanks the many individuals who contributed to the effort. Brian W. Kernighan, Doug McIlroy, and Arnold D. Robbins helped with Bell Labs login identifiers. Clem Cole, Era Eriksson, Mary Ann Horton, Kirk McKusick, Jeremy C. Reed, Ingo Schwarze, and Anatole Shaw helped with BSD login identifiers. The BSD SCCS import code is based on work by H. Merijn Brand and Jonathan Gray. + +This research has been co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund - ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program "Education and Lifelong Learning" of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - Research Funding Program: Thalis - Athens University of Economics and Business - Software Engineering Research Platform. + +### References ### + +[[1]][31] + M. D. McIlroy, E. N. Pinson, and B. A. Tague, "UNIX time-sharing system: Foreword," *The Bell System Technical Journal*, vol. 57, no. 6, pp. 1899-1904, July-August 1978. + +[[2]][32] + D. M. Ritchie and K. Thompson, "The UNIX time-sharing system," *Bell System Technical Journal*, vol. 57, no. 6, pp. 1905-1929, July-August 1978. + +[[3]][33] + D. M. Ritchie, "The evolution of the UNIX time-sharing system," *AT&T Bell Laboratories Technical Journal*, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 1577-1593, Oct. 1984. + +[[4]][34] + P. H. Salus, *A Quarter Century of UNIX*. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994. + +[[5]][35] + E. S. Raymond, *The Art of Unix Programming*. Addison-Wesley, 2003. + +[[6]][36] + M. J. Rochkind, "The source code control system," *IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering*, vol. SE-1, no. 4, pp. 255-265, 1975. + +---------- + +#### Footnotes: #### + +[1][37] - [https://github.com/dspinellis/unix-history-repo][38] + +[2][39] - Updates may add or modify material. To ensure replicability the repository's users are encouraged to fork it or archive it. + +[3][40] - [http://www.tuhs.org/archive_sites.html][41] + +[4][42] - [https://www.mckusick.com/csrg/][43] + +[5][44] - [http://www.oldlinux.org/Linux.old/distributions/386BSD][45] + +[6][46] - [http://ftp-archive.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD-Archive/old-releases/][47] + +[7][48] - [https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd][49] + +[8][50] - [http://ftp.netbsd.org/pub/NetBSD/NetBSD-current/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree][51] + +[9][52] - [https://github.com/dspinellis/unix-history-make][53] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html + +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#MPT78 +[2]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#RT78 +[3]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#Rit84 +[4]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#Sal94 +[5]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#Ray03 +[6]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#sec:data +[7]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#sec:dev +[8]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#sec:use +[9]:https://github.com/dspinellis/unix-history-repo +[10]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAB +[11]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAC +[12]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#fig:provenance +[13]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#fig:branches +[14]:http://www.tuhs.org/archive_sites.html +[15]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAD +[16]:https://www.mckusick.com/csrg/ +[17]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAE +[18]:http://www.oldlinux.org/Linux.old/distributions/386BSD +[19]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAF +[20]:http://ftp-archive.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD-Archive/old-releases/ +[21]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAG +[22]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#SCCS +[23]:https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd +[24]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAH +[25]:http://ftp.netbsd.org/pub/NetBSD/NetBSD-current/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree +[26]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAI +[27]:https://github.com/dspinellis/unix-history-make +[28]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFtNtAAJ +[29]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#fig:branches +[30]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#fig:metrics +[31]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#CITEMPT78 +[32]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#CITERT78 +[33]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#CITERit84 +[34]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#CITESal94 +[35]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#CITERay03 +[36]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#CITESCCS +[37]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAB +[38]:https://github.com/dspinellis/unix-history-repo +[39]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAC +[40]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAD +[41]:http://www.tuhs.org/archive_sites.html +[42]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAE +[43]:https://www.mckusick.com/csrg/ +[44]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAF +[45]:http://www.oldlinux.org/Linux.old/distributions/386BSD +[46]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAG +[47]:http://ftp-archive.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD-Archive/old-releases/ +[48]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAH +[49]:https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd +[50]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAI +[51]:http://ftp.netbsd.org/pub/NetBSD/NetBSD-current/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree +[52]:http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/dds/pubs/conf/2015-MSR-Unix-History/html/Spi15c.html#tthFrefAAJ +[53]:https://github.com/dspinellis/unix-history-make \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20151005 pyinfo() A good looking phpinfo-like python script.md b/sources/tech/20151005 pyinfo() A good looking phpinfo-like python script.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f096bc5fc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20151005 pyinfo() A good looking phpinfo-like python script.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +translation by strugglingyouth +pyinfo() A good looking phpinfo-like python script +================================================================================ +Being a native php guy, I'm used to having phpinfo(), giving me easy access to php.ini settings and loaded modules etc. So ofcourse I wanted to call the not existing pyinfo() function, to no avail. My fingers quickly pressed CTRL-E to google for a implementation of it, someone must've ported it already? + +Yes, someone did. But oh my was it ugly. Preposterous! Since I cannot stand ugly layouts *cough*, I just had to build my own. So I used the code I found and cleaned up the layout to make it better. The official python website isnt that bad layout-wise, so why not steal their colors and background images? Yes that sounds like a plan to me. + +[Gits Here][1] | [Download here][2] | [Example here][3] + +Mind you, I only ran it on a python 2.6.4 server, so anything else is at your own risk (but it should be no problem to port it to any other version). To get it working, just import the file and call pyinfo() while catching the function's return value. Print that on the screen. Huzzah! + +For those who did not get that and are using [mod_wsgi][4], run it using something like this (replace that path ofcourse): +``` +def application(environ, start_response): + import sys + path = 'YOUR_WWW_ROOT_DIRECTORY' + if path not in sys.path: + sys.path.append(path) + from pyinfo import pyinfo + output = pyinfo() + start_response('200 OK', [('Content-type', 'text/html')]) + return [output] +``` +--- + +via：http://bran.name/articles/pyinfo-a-good-looking-phpinfo-like-python-script/ + +作者：[Bran van der Meer][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译， +[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + + +[a]:http://bran.name/resume/ +[1]:https://gist.github.com/951825#file_pyinfo.py +[2]:http://bran.name/dump/pyinfo.zip +[3]:http://bran.name/dump/pyinfo/index.py +[4]:http://code.google.com/p/modwsgi/ diff --git a/sources/tech/20151007 Fix Shell Script Opens In Text Editor In Ubuntu.md b/sources/tech/20151007 Fix Shell Script Opens In Text Editor In Ubuntu.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..95f7bb4ee5 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20151007 Fix Shell Script Opens In Text Editor In Ubuntu.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +Fix Shell Script Opens In Text Editor In Ubuntu +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Run-Shell-Script-on-Double-Click.jpg) + +When you double click on a shell script (.sh file) what do you expect? The normal expectation would be that it is executed. But this might not be the case in Ubuntu, or I should better say in case of Files (Nautilus). You may go crazy yelling “Run, File, Run”, but the file won’t run and instead it gets opened in Gedit. + +I know that you would say, does the file has execute permission? And I say, yes. The shell script has execute permission but still if I double click on it, it is opened in a text editor. I don’t want it and if you are facing the same issue, I assume that even you don’t want it. + +I know that you would have been advised to run it in the terminal and I know that it would work but that’s not an excuse for the GUI way to not work. Is it? + +In this quick tutorial, we shall see **how to make shell script run by double clicking on it**. + +#### Fix Shell script opens in text editor in Ubuntu #### + +The reason why shell scripts are opening in text editor is the default behavior set in Files (file manager in Ubuntu). In earlier versions, it would ask you if you want to run the file or open for editing. The default behavior has been changed in later versions. + +To fix it, go in file manager and from the top menu and click on **Preference**: + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/execute-shell-program-ubuntu-1.png) + +Next in **Files preferences**, go to **Behavior** tab and you’ll see the option of “**Executables Text Files**“. + +By default, it would have been set to “View executable text files when they are opened”. I would advise you to change it to “Ask each time” so that you’ll have the choice whether to execute it or edit but of course you can set it by default for execution. Your choice here really. + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/execute-shell-program-ubuntu-2.png) + +I hope this quick tip helped you to fix this little ‘issue’. Questions and suggestions are always welcomed. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/shell-script-opens-text-editor/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/20151007 How To Download Videos Using youtube-dl In Linux.md b/sources/tech/20151007 How To Download Videos Using youtube-dl In Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..fa7dcbed6c --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/20151007 How To Download Videos Using youtube-dl In Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +How To Download Videos Using youtube-dl In Linux +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Download-YouTube-Videos.jpeg) + +I know you have already seen [how to download YouTube videos][1]. But those tools were mostly GUI ways. I am going to show you how to download YouTube videos via terminal using youtube-dl. + +### [youtube-dl][2] ### + +youtube-dl is a Python based small command-line tool that allows to download videos from YouTube.com, Dailymotion, Google Video, Photobucket, Facebook, Yahoo, Metacafe, Depositfiles and few more similar sites. It written in pygtk and requires Python interpreter to run this program, it’s not platform restricted. It should run on any Unix, Windows or in Mac OS X based systems. + +The youtube-dl tool supports resuming interrupted downloads. If youtube-dl is killed (for example by Ctrl-C or due to loss of Internet connectivity) in the middle of download, you can simply re-run it with the same YouTube video url. It will automatically resume the unfinished download, as long as a partial download is present in the current directory. Which means, you don’t need a [download][3] manager for resuming downloads. + +#### Installing youtube-dl #### + +If you are running Ubuntu based Linux distribution, you can install it using this command: + + sudo apt-get install youtube-dl + +For any Linux distribution, you can quickly install youtube-dl on your system through the command line interface with: + + sudo wget https://yt-dl.org/downloads/latest/youtube-dl -O/usr/local/bin/youtube-dl + +After fetching the file, you need to set a executable permission on the script to execute properly. + + sudo chmod a+rx /usr/local/bin/youtube-dl + +#### Use YouTube-DL to Download Videos: #### + +To download a video file, simply run the following command. Where “VIDEO_URL” is the url of the video that you want to download. + + youtube-dl VIDEO_URL + +#### Download YouTube Videos in Multiple Formats: #### + +These days YouTube videos have different resolutions, you first need to check available video formats of a given YouTube video. For that run youtube-dl with “-F” option. It will show you a list of available formats. + + youtube-dl -F http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BlXaGWbFVKY + +It’s output will be like: + + Setting language + BlXaGWbFVKY: Downloading video webpage + BlXaGWbFVKY: Downloading video info webpage + BlXaGWbFVKY: Extracting video information + Available formats: + 37 : mp4 [1080×1920] + 46 : webm [1080×1920] + 22 : mp4 [720×1280] + 45 : webm [720×1280] + 35 : flv [480×854] + 44 : webm [480×854] + 34 : flv [360×640] + 18 : mp4 [360×640] + 43 : webm [360×640] + 5 : flv [240×400] + 17 : mp4 [144×176] + +Now among the available video formats, choose one that you like. For example, if you want to download it in MP4 version, you should use: + + youtube-dl -f 17 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BlXaGWbFVKY + +#### Download subtitles of videos using youtube-dl #### + +First check if there are subtitles available for the video. To list all subs for a video, use the command beelow: + + youtube-dl --list-subs https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ye8mB6VsUHw + +To download all subs, but not the video: + + youtube-dl --all-subs --skip-download https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ye8mB6VsUHw + +#### Download entire playlist #### + +To download a playlist, simply run the following command. Where “playlist_url” is the url of the playlist that ou want to download. + + youtube-dl -cit playlist_url + +youtube-dl is a versatile command line tool and provides a number of functionalities. No wonder it is such a popular command line tool. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/download-youtube-linux/ + +作者：[alimiracle][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/ali/ +[1]:http://itsfoss.com/download-youtube-videos-ubuntu/ +[2]:https://rg3.github.io/youtube-dl/ +[3]:http://itsfoss.com/xtreme-download-manager-install/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 1 - LFCS--How to use GNU 'sed' Command to Create Edit and Manipulate files in Linux.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 1 - LFCS--How to use GNU 'sed' Command to Create Edit and Manipulate files in Linux.md deleted file mode 100644 index ca96b7dac6..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 1 - LFCS--How to use GNU 'sed' Command to Create Edit and Manipulate files in Linux.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,220 +0,0 @@ -Part 1 - LFCS: How to use GNU ‘sed’ Command to Create, Edit, and Manipulate files in Linux -================================================================================ -The Linux Foundation announced the LFCS (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin) certification, a new program that aims at helping individuals all over the world to get certified in basic to intermediate system administration tasks for Linux systems. This includes supporting running systems and services, along with first-hand troubleshooting and analysis, and smart decision-making to escalate issues to engineering teams. - -![Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/lfcs-Part-1.png) - -Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin – Part 1 - -Please watch the following video that demonstrates about The Linux Foundation Certification Program. - -注：youtube 视频 - - -The series will be titled Preparation for the LFCS (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin) Parts 1 through 10 and cover the following topics for Ubuntu, CentOS, and openSUSE: - -- Part 1: How to use GNU ‘sed’ Command to Create, Edit, and Manipulate files in Linux -- Part 2: How to Install and Use vi/m as a full Text Editor -- Part 3: Archiving Files/Directories and Finding Files on the Filesystem -- Part 4: Partitioning Storage Devices, Formatting Filesystems and Configuring Swap Partition -- Part 5: Mount/Unmount Local and Network (Samba & NFS) Filesystems in Linux -- Part 6: Assembling Partitions as RAID Devices – Creating & Managing System Backups -- Part 7: Managing System Startup Process and Services (SysVinit, Systemd and Upstart -- Part 8: Managing Users & Groups, File Permissions & Attributes and Enabling sudo Access on Accounts -- Part 9: Linux Package Management with Yum, RPM, Apt, Dpkg, Aptitude and Zypper -- Part 10: Learning Basic Shell Scripting and Filesystem Troubleshooting - - -This post is Part 1 of a 10-tutorial series, which will cover the necessary domains and competencies that are required for the LFCS certification exam. That being said, fire up your terminal, and let’s start. - -### Processing Text Streams in Linux ### - -Linux treats the input to and the output from programs as streams (or sequences) of characters. To begin understanding redirection and pipes, we must first understand the three most important types of I/O (Input and Output) streams, which are in fact special files (by convention in UNIX and Linux, data streams and peripherals, or device files, are also treated as ordinary files). - -The difference between > (redirection operator) and | (pipeline operator) is that while the first connects a command with a file, the latter connects the output of a command with another command. - - # command > file - # command1 | command2 - -Since the redirection operator creates or overwrites files silently, we must use it with extreme caution, and never mistake it with a pipeline. One advantage of pipes on Linux and UNIX systems is that there is no intermediate file involved with a pipe – the stdout of the first command is not written to a file and then read by the second command. - -For the following practice exercises we will use the poem “A happy child” (anonymous author). - -![cat command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/cat-command.png) - -cat command example - -#### Using sed #### - -The name sed is short for stream editor. For those unfamiliar with the term, a stream editor is used to perform basic text transformations on an input stream (a file or input from a pipeline). - -The most basic (and popular) usage of sed is the substitution of characters. We will begin by changing every occurrence of the lowercase y to UPPERCASE Y and redirecting the output to ahappychild2.txt. The g flag indicates that sed should perform the substitution for all instances of term on every line of file. If this flag is omitted, sed will replace only the first occurrence of term on each line. - -**Basic syntax:** - - # sed ‘s/term/replacement/flag’ file - -**Our example:** - - # sed ‘s/y/Y/g’ ahappychild.txt > ahappychild2.txt - -![sed command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sed-command.png) - -sed command example - -Should you want to search for or replace a special character (such as /, \, &) you need to escape it, in the term or replacement strings, with a backward slash. - -For example, we will substitute the word and for an ampersand. At the same time, we will replace the word I with You when the first one is found at the beginning of a line. - - # sed 's/and/\&/g;s/^I/You/g' ahappychild.txt - -![sed replace string](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sed-replace-string.png) - -sed replace string - -In the above command, a ^ (caret sign) is a well-known regular expression that is used to represent the beginning of a line. - -As you can see, we can combine two or more substitution commands (and use regular expressions inside them) by separating them with a semicolon and enclosing the set inside single quotes. - -Another use of sed is showing (or deleting) a chosen portion of a file. In the following example, we will display the first 5 lines of /var/log/messages from Jun 8. - - # sed -n '/^Jun 8/ p' /var/log/messages | sed -n 1,5p - -Note that by default, sed prints every line. We can override this behaviour with the -n option and then tell sed to print (indicated by p) only the part of the file (or the pipe) that matches the pattern (Jun 8 at the beginning of line in the first case and lines 1 through 5 inclusive in the second case). - -Finally, it can be useful while inspecting scripts or configuration files to inspect the code itself and leave out comments. The following sed one-liner deletes (d) blank lines or those starting with # (the | character indicates a boolean OR between the two regular expressions). - - # sed '/^#\|^$/d' apache2.conf - -![sed match string](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sed-match-string.png) - -sed match string - -#### uniq Command #### - -The uniq command allows us to report or remove duplicate lines in a file, writing to stdout by default. We must note that uniq does not detect repeated lines unless they are adjacent. Thus, uniq is commonly used along with a preceding sort (which is used to sort lines of text files). By default, sort takes the first field (separated by spaces) as key field. To specify a different key field, we need to use the -k option. - -**Examples** - -The du –sch /path/to/directory/* command returns the disk space usage per subdirectories and files within the specified directory in human-readable format (also shows a total per directory), and does not order the output by size, but by subdirectory and file name. We can use the following command to sort by size. - - # du -sch /var/* | sort –h - -![sort command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sort-command.jpg) - -sort command example - -You can count the number of events in a log by date by telling uniq to perform the comparison using the first 6 characters (-w 6) of each line (where the date is specified), and prefixing each output line by the number of occurrences (-c) with the following command. - - # cat /var/log/mail.log | uniq -c -w 6 - -![Count Numbers in File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/count-numbers-in-file.jpg) - -Count Numbers in File - -Finally, you can combine sort and uniq (as they usually are). Consider the following file with a list of donors, donation date, and amount. Suppose we want to know how many unique donors there are. We will use the following command to cut the first field (fields are delimited by a colon), sort by name, and remove duplicate lines. - - # cat sortuniq.txt | cut -d: -f1 | sort | uniq - -![Find Unique Records in File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/find-uniqu-records-in-file.jpg) - -Find Unique Records in File - -- Read Also: [13 “cat” Command Examples][1] - -#### grep Command #### - -grep searches text files or (command output) for the occurrence of a specified regular expression and outputs any line containing a match to standard output. - -**Examples** - -Display the information from /etc/passwd for user gacanepa, ignoring case. - - # grep -i gacanepa /etc/passwd - -![grep Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/grep-command.jpg) - -grep command example - -Show all the contents of /etc whose name begins with rc followed by any single number. - - # ls -l /etc | grep rc[0-9] - -![List Content Using grep](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/list-content-using-grep.jpg) - -List Content Using grep - -- Read Also: [12 “grep” Command Examples][2] - -#### tr Command Usage #### - -The tr command can be used to translate (change) or delete characters from stdin, and write the result to stdout. - -**Examples** - -Change all lowercase to uppercase in sortuniq.txt file. - - # cat sortuniq.txt | tr [:lower:] [:upper:] - -![Sort Strings in File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sort-strings.jpg) - -Sort Strings in File - -Squeeze the delimiter in the output of ls –l to only one space. - - # ls -l | tr -s ' ' - -![Squeeze Delimiter](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/squeeze-delimeter.jpg) - -Squeeze Delimiter - -#### cut Command Usage #### - -The cut command extracts portions of input lines (from stdin or files) and displays the result on standard output, based on number of bytes (-b option), characters (-c), or fields (-f). In this last case (based on fields), the default field separator is a tab, but a different delimiter can be specified by using the -d option. - -**Examples** - -Extract the user accounts and the default shells assigned to them from /etc/passwd (the –d option allows us to specify the field delimiter, and the –f switch indicates which field(s) will be extracted. - - # cat /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1,7 - -![Extract User Accounts](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/extract-user-accounts.jpg) - -Extract User Accounts - -Summing up, we will create a text stream consisting of the first and third non-blank files of the output of the last command. We will use grep as a first filter to check for sessions of user gacanepa, then squeeze delimiters to only one space (tr -s ‘ ‘). Next, we’ll extract the first and third fields with cut, and finally sort by the second field (IP addresses in this case) showing unique. - - # last | grep gacanepa | tr -s ‘ ‘ | cut -d’ ‘ -f1,3 | sort -k2 | uniq - -![last command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/last-command.png) - -last command example - -The above command shows how multiple commands and pipes can be combined so as to obtain filtered data according to our desires. Feel free to also run it by parts, to help you see the output that is pipelined from one command to the next (this can be a great learning experience, by the way!). - -### Summary ### - -Although this example (along with the rest of the examples in the current tutorial) may not seem very useful at first sight, they are a nice starting point to begin experimenting with commands that are used to create, edit, and manipulate files from the Linux command line. Feel free to leave your questions and comments below – they will be much appreciated! - -#### Reference Links #### - -- [About the LFCS][3] -- [Why get a Linux Foundation Certification?][4] -- [Register for the LFCS exam][5] - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/sed-command-to-create-edit-and-manipulate-files-in-linux/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/13-basic-cat-command-examples-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/12-practical-examples-of-linux-grep-command/ -[3]:https://training.linuxfoundation.org/certification/LFCS -[4]:https://training.linuxfoundation.org/certification/why-certify-with-us -[5]:https://identity.linuxfoundation.org/user?destination=pid/1 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 10 - LFCS--Understanding and Learning Basic Shell Scripting and Linux Filesystem Troubleshooting.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 10 - LFCS--Understanding and Learning Basic Shell Scripting and Linux Filesystem Troubleshooting.md index 45029ac20e..5dd1782a98 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 10 - LFCS--Understanding and Learning Basic Shell Scripting and Linux Filesystem Troubleshooting.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 10 - LFCS--Understanding and Learning Basic Shell Scripting and Linux Filesystem Troubleshooting.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 10 - LFCS: Understanding & Learning Basic Shell Scripting and Linux Filesystem Troubleshooting ================================================================================ The Linux Foundation launched the LFCS certification (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin), a brand new initiative whose purpose is to allow individuals everywhere (and anywhere) to get certified in basic to intermediate operational support for Linux systems, which includes supporting running systems and services, along with overall monitoring and analysis, plus smart decision-making when it comes to raising issues to upper support teams. @@ -99,10 +101,10 @@ Execute Script Whenever you need to specify different courses of action to be taken in a shell script, as result of the success or failure of a command, you will use the if construct to define such conditions. Its basic syntax is: - if CONDITION; then + if CONDITION; then COMMANDS; else - OTHER-COMMANDS + OTHER-COMMANDS fi Where CONDITION can be one of the following (only the most frequent conditions are cited here) and evaluates to true when: @@ -133,8 +135,8 @@ Where CONDITION can be one of the following (only the most frequent conditions a This loop allows to execute one or more commands for each value in a list of values. Its basic syntax is: - for item in SEQUENCE; do - COMMANDS; + for item in SEQUENCE; do + COMMANDS; done Where item is a generic variable that represents each value in SEQUENCE during each iteration. @@ -143,8 +145,8 @@ Where item is a generic variable that represents each value in SEQUENCE during e This loop allows to execute a series of repetitive commands as long as the control command executes with an exit status equal to zero (successfully). Its basic syntax is: - while EVALUATION_COMMAND; do - EXECUTE_COMMANDS; + while EVALUATION_COMMAND; do + EXECUTE_COMMANDS; done Where EVALUATION_COMMAND can be any command(s) that can exit with a success (0) or failure (other than 0) status, and EXECUTE_COMMANDS can be any program, script or shell construct, including other nested loops. @@ -158,7 +160,7 @@ We will demonstrate the use of the if construct and the for loop with the follow Let’s create a file with a list of services that we want to monitor at a glance. # cat myservices.txt - + sshd mariadb httpd @@ -172,10 +174,10 @@ Script to Monitor Linux Services Our shell script should look like. #!/bin/bash - + # This script iterates over a list of services and # is used to determine whether they are running or not. - + for service in $(cat myservices.txt); do systemctl status $service | grep --quiet "running" if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then @@ -214,10 +216,10 @@ Services Monitoring Script We could go one step further and check for the existence of myservices.txt before even attempting to enter the for loop. #!/bin/bash - + # This script iterates over a list of services and # is used to determine whether they are running or not. - + if [ -f myservices.txt ]; then for service in $(cat myservices.txt); do systemctl status $service | grep --quiet "running" @@ -238,9 +240,9 @@ You may want to maintain a list of hosts in a text file and use a script to dete The read shell built-in command tells the while loop to read myhosts line by line and assigns the content of each line to variable host, which is then passed to the ping command. #!/bin/bash - + # This script is used to demonstrate the use of a while loop - + while read host; do ping -c 2 $host done < myhosts diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 2 - LFCS--How to Install and Use vi or vim as a Full Text Editor.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 2 - LFCS--How to Install and Use vi or vim as a Full Text Editor.md index 7537f784bd..1d069e08ea 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 2 - LFCS--How to Install and Use vi or vim as a Full Text Editor.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 2 - LFCS--How to Install and Use vi or vim as a Full Text Editor.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 2 - LFCS: How to Install and Use vi/vim as a Full Text Editor ================================================================================ A couple of months ago, the Linux Foundation launched the LFCS (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin) certification in order to help individuals from all over the world to verify they are capable of doing basic to intermediate system administration tasks on Linux systems: system support, first-hand troubleshooting and maintenance, plus intelligent decision-making to know when it’s time to raise issues to upper support teams. @@ -295,7 +297,7 @@ Vi Search String in File c). vi uses a command (similar to sed’s) to perform substitution operations over a range of lines or an entire file. To change the word “old” to “young” for the entire file, we must enter the following command. - :%s/old/young/g + :%s/old/young/g **Notice**: The colon at the beginning of the command. diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 3 - LFCS--How to Archive or Compress Files and Directories Setting File Attributes and Finding Files in Linux.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 3 - LFCS--How to Archive or Compress Files and Directories Setting File Attributes and Finding Files in Linux.md index 6ac3d104a0..77fe5cf040 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 3 - LFCS--How to Archive or Compress Files and Directories Setting File Attributes and Finding Files in Linux.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 3 - LFCS--How to Archive or Compress Files and Directories Setting File Attributes and Finding Files in Linux.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 3 - LFCS: How to Archive/Compress Files & Directories, Setting File Attributes and Finding Files in Linux ================================================================================ Recently, the Linux Foundation started the LFCS (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin) certification, a brand new program whose purpose is allowing individuals from all corners of the globe to have access to an exam, which if approved, certifies that the person is knowledgeable in performing basic to intermediate system administration tasks on Linux systems. This includes supporting already running systems and services, along with first-level troubleshooting and analysis, plus the ability to decide when to escalate issues to engineering teams. @@ -178,9 +180,9 @@ List Archive Content Run any of the following commands: - # gzip -d myfiles.tar.gz [#1] - # bzip2 -d myfiles.tar.bz2 [#2] - # xz -d myfiles.tar.xz [#3] + # gzip -d myfiles.tar.gz [#1] + # bzip2 -d myfiles.tar.bz2 [#2] + # xz -d myfiles.tar.xz [#3] Then diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 4 - LFCS--Partitioning Storage Devices Formatting Filesystems and Configuring Swap Partition.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 4 - LFCS--Partitioning Storage Devices Formatting Filesystems and Configuring Swap Partition.md index ada637fabb..93e4b2966b 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 4 - LFCS--Partitioning Storage Devices Formatting Filesystems and Configuring Swap Partition.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 4 - LFCS--Partitioning Storage Devices Formatting Filesystems and Configuring Swap Partition.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 4 - LFCS: Partitioning Storage Devices, Formatting Filesystems and Configuring Swap Partition ================================================================================ Last August, the Linux Foundation launched the LFCS certification (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin), a shiny chance for system administrators to show, through a performance-based exam, that they can perform overall operational support of Linux systems: system support, first-level diagnosing and monitoring, plus issue escalation – if needed – to other support teams. diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 5 - LFCS--How to Mount or Unmount Local and Network Samba and NFS Filesystems in Linux.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 5 - LFCS--How to Mount or Unmount Local and Network Samba and NFS Filesystems in Linux.md index 1544a378bc..4316e32c16 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 5 - LFCS--How to Mount or Unmount Local and Network Samba and NFS Filesystems in Linux.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 5 - LFCS--How to Mount or Unmount Local and Network Samba and NFS Filesystems in Linux.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 5 - LFCS: How to Mount/Unmount Local and Network (Samba & NFS) Filesystems in Linux ================================================================================ The Linux Foundation launched the LFCS certification (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin), a brand new program whose purpose is allowing individuals from all corners of the globe to get certified in basic to intermediate system administration tasks for Linux systems, which includes supporting running systems and services, along with overall monitoring and analysis, plus smart decision-making when it comes to raising issues to upper support teams. diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 6 - LFCS--Assembling Partitions as RAID Devices – Creating & Managing System Backups.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 6 - LFCS--Assembling Partitions as RAID Devices – Creating & Managing System Backups.md index bdabfb1f9d..901fb7b4f1 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 6 - LFCS--Assembling Partitions as RAID Devices – Creating & Managing System Backups.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 6 - LFCS--Assembling Partitions as RAID Devices – Creating & Managing System Backups.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 6 - LFCS: Assembling Partitions as RAID Devices – Creating & Managing System Backups ================================================================================ Recently, the Linux Foundation launched the LFCS (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin) certification, a shiny chance for system administrators everywhere to demonstrate, through a performance-based exam, that they are capable of performing overall operational support on Linux systems: system support, first-level diagnosing and monitoring, plus issue escalation, when required, to other support teams. @@ -24,7 +26,7 @@ However, the actual fault-tolerance and disk I/O performance lean on how the har Our tool of choice for creating, assembling, managing, and monitoring our software RAIDs is called mdadm (short for multiple disks admin). ---------------- Debian and Derivatives ---------------- - # aptitude update && aptitude install mdadm + # aptitude update && aptitude install mdadm ---------- @@ -34,7 +36,7 @@ Our tool of choice for creating, assembling, managing, and monitoring our softwa ---------- ---------------- On openSUSE ---------------- - # zypper refresh && zypper install mdadm # + # zypper refresh && zypper install mdadm # #### Assembling Partitions as RAID Devices #### @@ -55,7 +57,7 @@ Creating RAID Array After creating RAID array, you an check the status of the array using the following commands. # cat /proc/mdstat - or + or # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 [More detailed summary] ![Check RAID Array Status](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Check-RAID-Array-Status.png) @@ -203,16 +205,16 @@ The downside of this backup approach is that the image will have the same size a # dd if=/dev/sda of=/system_images/sda.img OR - --------------------- Alternatively, you can compress the image file --------------------- - # dd if=/dev/sda | gzip -c > /system_images/sda.img.gz + --------------------- Alternatively, you can compress the image file --------------------- + # dd if=/dev/sda | gzip -c > /system_images/sda.img.gz **Restoring the backup from the image file** # dd if=/system_images/sda.img of=/dev/sda - OR - - --------------------- Depending on your choice while creating the image --------------------- - gzip -dc /system_images/sda.img.gz | dd of=/dev/sda + OR + + --------------------- Depending on your choice while creating the image --------------------- + gzip -dc /system_images/sda.img.gz | dd of=/dev/sda Method 2: Backup certain files / directories with tar command – already covered in [Part 3][3] of this series. You may consider using this method if you need to keep copies of specific files and directories (configuration files, users’ home directories, and so on). @@ -247,7 +249,7 @@ Synchronizing remote → local directories over ssh. In this case, switch the source and destination directories from the previous example. - # rsync -avzhe ssh root@remote_host:/remote_directory/ backups + # rsync -avzhe ssh root@remote_host:/remote_directory/ backups Please note that these are only 3 examples (most frequent cases you’re likely to run into) of the use of rsync. For more examples and usages of rsync commands can be found at the following article. diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 7 - LFCS--Managing System Startup Process and Services SysVinit Systemd and Upstart.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 7 - LFCS--Managing System Startup Process and Services SysVinit Systemd and Upstart.md index b024c89540..4b7cdf9fe2 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 7 - LFCS--Managing System Startup Process and Services SysVinit Systemd and Upstart.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 7 - LFCS--Managing System Startup Process and Services SysVinit Systemd and Upstart.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 7 - LFCS: Managing System Startup Process and Services (SysVinit, Systemd and Upstart) ================================================================================ A couple of months ago, the Linux Foundation announced the LFCS (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin) certification, an exciting new program whose aim is allowing individuals from all ends of the world to get certified in performing basic to intermediate system administration tasks on Linux systems. This includes supporting already running systems and services, along with first-hand problem-finding and analysis, plus the ability to decide when to raise issues to engineering teams. @@ -267,7 +269,7 @@ Starting Stoping Services Under systemd you can enable or disable a service when it boots. - # systemctl enable [service] # enable a service + # systemctl enable [service] # enable a service # systemctl disable [service] # prevent a service from starting at boot The process of enabling or disabling a service to start automatically on boot consists in adding or removing symbolic links in the /etc/systemd/system/multi-user.target.wants directory. @@ -315,7 +317,7 @@ For example, # My test service - Upstart script demo description "Here goes the description of 'My test service'" author "Dave Null " # Stanzas - + # # Stanzas define when and how a process is started and stopped # See a list of stanzas here: http://upstart.ubuntu.com/wiki/Stanzas#respawn diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 8 - LFCS--Managing Users and Groups File Permissions and Attributes and Enabling sudo Access on Accounts.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 8 - LFCS--Managing Users and Groups File Permissions and Attributes and Enabling sudo Access on Accounts.md index 4ccf3f20f6..50f39ee2d9 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 8 - LFCS--Managing Users and Groups File Permissions and Attributes and Enabling sudo Access on Accounts.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 8 - LFCS--Managing Users and Groups File Permissions and Attributes and Enabling sudo Access on Accounts.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 8 - LFCS: Managing Users & Groups, File Permissions & Attributes and Enabling sudo Access on Accounts ================================================================================ Last August, the Linux Foundation started the LFCS certification (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin), a brand new program whose purpose is to allow individuals everywhere and anywhere take an exam in order to get certified in basic to intermediate operational support for Linux systems, which includes supporting running systems and services, along with overall monitoring and analysis, plus intelligent decision-making to be able to decide when it’s necessary to escalate issues to higher level support teams. @@ -191,7 +193,7 @@ Thus, any user should have permission to run /bin/passwd, but only root will be ![Change User Password in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/change-user-password.png) Change User Password - + **Understanding Setgid** When the setgid bit is set, the effective GID of the real user becomes that of the group owner. Thus, any user can access a file under the privileges granted to the group owner of such file. In addition, when the setgid bit is set on a directory, newly created files inherit the same group as the directory, and newly created subdirectories will also inherit the setgid bit of the parent directory. You will most likely use this approach whenever members of a certain group need access to all the files in a directory, regardless of the file owner’s primary group. diff --git a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 9 - LFCS--Linux Package Management with Yum RPM Apt Dpkg Aptitude and Zypper.md b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 9 - LFCS--Linux Package Management with Yum RPM Apt Dpkg Aptitude and Zypper.md index 7b58a467d7..a363a50c09 100644 --- a/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 9 - LFCS--Linux Package Management with Yum RPM Apt Dpkg Aptitude and Zypper.md +++ b/sources/tech/LFCS/Part 9 - LFCS--Linux Package Management with Yum RPM Apt Dpkg Aptitude and Zypper.md @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + Part 9 - LFCS: Linux Package Management with Yum, RPM, Apt, Dpkg, Aptitude and Zypper ================================================================================ Last August, the Linux Foundation announced the LFCS certification (Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin), a shiny chance for system administrators everywhere to demonstrate, through a performance-based exam, that they are capable of succeeding at overall operational support for Linux systems. A Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin has the expertise to ensure effective system support, first-level troubleshooting and monitoring, including finally issue escalation, when needed, to engineering support teams. @@ -85,7 +87,7 @@ rpm is the package management system used by Linux Standard Base (LSB)-compliant yum adds the functionality of automatic updates and package management with dependency management to RPM-based systems. As a high-level tool, like apt-get or aptitude, yum works with repositories. - Read More: [20 yum Command Examples][4] -- +- ### Common Usage of Low-Level Tools ### The most frequent tasks that you will do with low level tools are as follows: @@ -155,7 +157,7 @@ The most frequent tasks that you will do with high level tools are as follows. aptitude update will update the list of available packages, and aptitude search will perform the actual search for package_name. - # aptitude update && aptitude search package_name + # aptitude update && aptitude search package_name In the search all option, yum will search for package_name not only in package names, but also in package descriptions. @@ -190,8 +192,8 @@ The option remove will uninstall the package but leaving configuration files int # yum erase package_name ---Notice the minus sign in front of the package that will be uninstalled, openSUSE --- - - # zypper remove -package_name + + # zypper remove -package_name Most (if not all) package managers will prompt you, by default, if you’re sure about proceeding with the uninstallation before actually performing it. So read the onscreen messages carefully to avoid running into unnecessary trouble! @@ -199,7 +201,7 @@ Most (if not all) package managers will prompt you, by default, if you’re sure The following command will display information about the birthday package. - # aptitude show birthday + # aptitude show birthday # yum info birthday # zypper info birthday diff --git a/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Learning Music.md b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Learning Music.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e6467eb810 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Learning Music.md @@ -0,0 +1,155 @@ +Learn with Linux: Learning Music +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-featured.png) + +This article is part of the [Learn with Linux][1] series: + +- [Learn with Linux: Learning to Type][2] +- [Learn with Linux: Physics Simulation][3] +- [Learn with Linux: Learning Music][4] +- [Learn with Linux: Two Geography Apps][5] +- [Learn with Linux: Master Your Math with These Linux Apps][6] + +Linux offers great educational software and many excellent tools to aid students of all grades and ages in learning and practicing a variety of topics, often interactively. The “Learn with Linux” series of articles offers an introduction to a variety of educational apps and software. + +Learning music is a great pastime. Training your ears to identify scales and chords and mastering an instrument or your own voice requires lots of practise and could become difficult. Music theory is extensive. There is much to memorize, and to turn it into a “skill” you will need diligence. Linux offers exceptional software to help you along your musical journey. They will not help you become a professional musician instantly but could ease the process of learning, being a great aide and reference point. + +### Gnu Solfège ### + +[Solfège][7] is a popular music education method that is used in all levels of music education all around the world. Many popular methods (like the Kodály method) use Solfège as their basis. GNU Solfège is a great software aimed more at practising Solfège than learning it. It assumes the student has already acquired the basics and wishes to practise what they have learned. + +As the developer states on the GNU website: + +> “When you study music on high school, college, music conservatory, you usually have to do ear training. Some of the exercises, like sight singing, is easy to do alone [sic]. But often you have to be at least two people, one making questions, the other answering. […] GNU Solfège tries to help out with this. With Solfege you can practise the more simple and mechanical exercises without the need to get others to help you. Just don’t forget that this program only touches a part of the subject.” + +The software delivers its promise; you can practise essentially everything with audible and visual aids. + +GNU solfege is in the Debian (therefore Ubuntu) repositories. To get it just type the following command into a terminal: + + sudo apt-get install solfege + +When it loads, you find yourself on a simple starting screen/ + +![learnmusic-solfege-main](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-solfege-main.png) + +The number of options is almost overwhelming. Most of the links will open sub-categories + +![learnmusic-solfege-scales](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-solfege-scales.png) + +from where you can select individual exercises. + +![learnmusic-solfege-hun](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-solfege-hun.png) + +There are practice sessions and tests. Both will be able to play the tones through any connected MIDI device or just your sound card’s MIDI player. The exercises often have visual notation and the ability to play back the sequence slowly. + +One important note about Solfège is that under Ubuntu you might not be able to hear anything with the default setup (unless you have a MIDI device connected). If that is the case, head over to “File -> Preferences,” select sound setup and choose the appropriate option for your system (choosing ALSA would probably work in most cases). + +![learnmusic-solfege-midi](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-solfege-midi.png) + +Solfège could be very helpful for your daily practise. Use it regularly and you will have trained your ear before you can sing do-re-mi. + +### Tete (ear trainer) ### + +[Tete][8] (This ear trainer ‘ere) is a Java application for simple, yet efficient, [ear training][9]. It helps you identify a variety of scales by playing thhm back under various circumstances, from different roots and on different MIDI sounds. [Download it from SourceForge][10]. You then need to unzip the downloaded file. + + unzip Tete-* + +Enter the unpacked directory: + + cd Tete-* + +Assuming you have Java installed in your system, you can run the java file with + + java -jar Tete-[your version] + +(To autocomplete the above command, just press the Tab key after typing “Tete-“.) + +Tete has a simple, one-page interface with everything on it. + +![learnmusic-tete-main](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-tete-main.png) + +You can choose to play scales (see above), chords, + +![learnmusic-tete-chords](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-tete-chords.png) + +or intervals. + +![learnmusic-tete-intervals](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-tete-intervals.png) + +You can “fine tune” your experience with various options including the midi instrument’s sound, what note to start from, ascending or descending scales, and how slow/fast the playback should be. Tete’s SourceForge page includes a very useful tutorial that explains most aspects of the software. + +### JalMus ### + +Jalmus is a Java-based keyboard note reading trainer. It works with attached MIDI keyboards or with the on-screen virtual keyboard. It has many simple lessons and exercises to train in music reading. Unfortunately, its development has been discontinued since 2013, but the software appears to still be functional. + +To get Jalmus, head over to the [sourceforge page][11] of its last version (2.3) to get the Java installer, or just type the following command into a terminal: + + wget http://garr.dl.sourceforge.net/project/jalmus/Jalmus-2.3/installjalmus23.jar + +Once the download finishes, load the installer with + + java -jar installjalmus23.jar + +You will be guided through a simple Java-based installer that was made for cross-platform installation. + +Jalmus’s main screen is plain. + +![learnmusic-jalmus-main](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-jalmus-main.jpg) + +You can find lessons of varying difficulty in the Lessons menu. It ranges from very simple ones, where one notes swims in from the left, and the corresponding key lights up on the on screen keyboard … + +![learnmusic-jalmus-singlenote](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-jalmus-singlenote.png) + +… to difficult ones with many notes swimming in from the right, and you are required to repeat the sequence on your keyboard. + +![learnmusic-jalmus-multinote](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-jalmus-multinote.png) + +Jalmus also includes exercises of note reading single notes, which are very similar to the lessons, only without the visual hints, where your score will be displayed after you finished. It also aids rhythm reading of varying difficulty, where the rhythm is both audible and visually marked. A metronome (audible and visual) aids in the understanding + +![learnmusic-jalmus-rhythm](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-jalmus-rhythm.png) + +and score reading where multiple notes will be played + +![learnmusic-jalmus-score](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmusic-jalmus-score.png) + +All these options are configurable; you can switch features on and off as you like. + +All things considered, Jalmus probably works best for rhythm training. Although it was not necessarily its intended purpose, the software really excelled in this particular use-case. + +### Notable mentions ### + +#### TuxGuitar #### + +For guitarists, [TuxGuitar][12] works much like Guitar Pro on Windows (and it can also read guitar-pro files). +PianoBooster + +[Piano Booster][13] can help with piano skills. It is designed to play MIDI files, which you can play along with on an attached keyboard, watching the core roll past on the screen. + +### Conclusion ### + +Linux offers many great tools for learning, and if your particular interest is music, your will not be left without software to aid your practice. Surely there are many more excellent software tools available for music students than were mentioned above. Do you know of any? Please let us know in the comments below. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-learning-music/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ +[1]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/series/learn-with-linux/ +[2]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-to-type-in-linux/ +[3]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-physics-simulation/ +[4]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-learning-music/ +[5]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-geography-apps/ +[6]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ +[7]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solf%C3%A8ge +[8]:http://tete.sourceforge.net/index.shtml +[9]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear_training +[10]:http://sourceforge.net/projects/tete/files/latest/download +[11]:http://sourceforge.net/projects/jalmus/files/Jalmus-2.3/ +[12]:http://tuxguitar.herac.com.ar/ +[13]:http://www.linuxlinks.com/article/20090517041840856/PianoBooster.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Learning to Type.md b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Learning to Type.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..51cef0f1a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Learning to Type.md @@ -0,0 +1,121 @@ +Learn with Linux: Learning to Type +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-featured.png) + +This article is part of the [Learn with Linux][1] series: + +- [Learn with Linux: Learning to Type][2] +- [Learn with Linux: Physics Simulation][3] +- [Learn with Linux: Learning Music][4] +- [Learn with Linux: Two Geography Apps][5] +- [Learn with Linux: Master Your Math with These Linux Apps][6] + +Linux offers great educational software and many excellent tools to aid students of all grades and ages in learning and practicing a variety of topics, often interactively. The “Learn with Linux” series of articles offers an introduction to a variety of educational apps and software. + +Typing is taken for granted by many people; today being keyboard savvy often comes as second nature. Yet how many of us still type with two fingers, even if ever so fast? Once typing was taught in schools, but slowly the art of ten-finger typing is giving way to two thumbs. + +The following two applications can help you master the keyboard so that your next thought does not get lost while your fingers catch up. They were chosen for their simplicity and ease of use. While there are some more flashy or better looking typing apps out there, the following two will get the basics covered and offer the easiest way to start out. + +### TuxType (or TuxTyping) ### + +TuxType is for children. Young students can learn how to type with ten fingers with simple lessons and practice their newly-acquired skills in fun games. + +Debian and derivatives (therefore all Ubuntu derivatives) should have TuxType in their standard repositories. To install simply type + + sudo apt-get install tuxtype + +The application starts with a simple menu screen featuring Tux and some really bad midi music (Fortunately the sound can be turned off easily with the icon in the lower left corner.). + +![learntotype-tuxtyping-main](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-tuxtyping-main.jpg) + +The top two choices, “Fish Cascade” and “Comet Zap,” represent typing games, but to start learning you need to head over to the lessons. + +There are forty simple built-in lessons to choose from. Each one of these will take a letter from the keyboard and make the student practice while giving visual hints, such as which finger to use. + +![learntotype-tuxtyping-exd1](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-tuxtyping-exd1.jpg) + +![learntotype-tuxtyping-exd2](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-tuxtyping-exd2.jpg) + +For more advanced practice, phrase typing is also available, although for some reason this is hidden under the options menu. + +![learntotype-tuxtyping-phrase](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-tuxtyping-phrase.jpg) + +The games are good for speed and accuracy as the player helps Tux catch falling fish + +![learntotype-tuxtyping-fish](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-tuxtyping-fish.jpg) + +or zap incoming asteroids by typing the words written over them. + +![learntotype-tuxtyping-zap](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-tuxtyping-zap.jpg) + +Besides being a fun way to practice, these games teach spelling, speed, and eye-to-hand coordination, as you must type while also watching the screen, building a foundation for touch typing, if taken seriously. + +### GNU typist (gtype) ### + +For adults and more experienced typists, there is GNU Typist, a console-based application developed by the GNU project. + +GNU Typist will also be carried by most Debian derivatives’ main repos. Installing it is as easy as typing + + sudo apt-get install gtype + +You will probably not find it in the Applications menu; insteaad you should start it from a terminal window. + + gtype + +The main menu is simple, no-nonsense and frill-free, yet it is evident how much the software has to offer. Typing lessons of all levels are immediately accessible. + +![learntotype-gtype-main](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-main.png) + +The lessons are straightforward and detailed. + +![learntotype-gtype-lesson](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-lesson.png) + +The interactive practice sessions offer little more than highlighting your mistakes. Instead of flashy visuals you have to chance to focus on practising. At the end of each lesson you get some simple statistics of how you’ve been doing. If you make too many mistakes, you cannot proceed until you can pass the level. + +![learntotype-gtype-mistake](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-mistake.png) + +While the basic lessons only require you to repeat some characters, more advanced drills will have the practitioner type either whole sentences, + +![learntotype-gtype-warmup](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-warmup.png) + +where of course the three percent error margin means you are allowed even fewer mistakes, + +![learntotype-gtype-warmupfail](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-warmupfail.png) + +or some drills aiming to achieve certain goals, as in the “Balanced keyboard drill.” + +![learntotype-gtype-balanceddrill](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-balanceddrill.png) + +Simple speed drills have you type quotes, + +![learntotype-gtype-speed-simple](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-speed-simple.png) + +while more advanced ones will make you write longer texts taken from classics. + +![learntotype-gtype-speed-advanced](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-speed-advanced.png) + +If you’d prefer a different language, more lessons can also be loaded as command line arguments. + +![learntotype-gtype-more-lessons](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learntotype-gtype-more-lessons.png) + +### Conclusion ### + +If you care to hone your typing skills, Linux has great software to offer. The two basic, yet feature-rich, applications discussed above will cater to most aspiring typists’ needs. If you use or know of another great typing application, please don’t hesitate to let us know below in the comments. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-to-type-in-linux/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ +[1]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/series/learn-with-linux/ +[2]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-to-type-in-linux/ +[3]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-physics-simulation/ +[4]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-learning-music/ +[5]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-geography-apps/ +[6]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Master Your Math with These Linux Apps.md b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Master Your Math with These Linux Apps.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f4625c6c13 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Master Your Math with These Linux Apps.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +Translated by KnightJoker + +用Linux学习：使用这些Linux应用来征服你的数学 +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-featured.png) + +这篇文章是[用Linux学习][1]系列的一部分: + +- [用Linux学习: 学习类型][2] +- [用Linux学习: 物理模拟][3] +- [用Linux学习: 学习音乐][4] +- [用Linux学习: 两个地理应用程序][5] +- [用Linux学习: 用这些Linux应用来征服你的数学][6] + + +Linux提供了大量的教育软件和许多优秀的工具来帮助所有年龄段的学生学习和练习各种各样的话题,常常以交互的方式。与Linux一起学习这一系列的文章则为这些各种各样的教育软件和应用提供了一个介绍。 + +数学是计算机的核心。如果有人用精益求精和纪律来预期一个伟大的操作系统，比如GNU/ Linux，那么这将是数学。如果你在寻求一些数学应用程序，那么你将不会感到失望。Linux提供了很多优秀的工具使得数学看起来和你曾经做过的一样令人畏惧，但实际上他们会简化你使用它的方式。 +### Gnuplot ### + +Gnuplot 是一个适用于不同平台的命令行脚本化和多功能的图形工具。尽管它的名字，并不是GNU操作系统的一部分。也没有免费授权，但它是免费软件（这意味着它受版权保护，但免费使用）。 + +要在Ubuntu系统（或者衍生系统）上安装 `gnuplot`，输入： + sudo apt-get install gnuplot gnuplot-x11 + +进入一个终端窗口。启动该程序，输入： + + gnuplot + +你会看到一个简单的命令行界面： + +![learnmath-gnuplot](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot.png) + +在其中您可以直接开始输入函数。绘图命令将绘制一个曲线图。 + +输入内容，例如， + + plot sin(x)/x + +随着`gnuplot的`提示，将会打开一个新的窗口，图像便会在里面呈现。 + +![learnmath-gnuplot-plot1](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-plot1.png) + +你也可以在线这个图设置不同的属性，比如像这样指定“title” + + plot sin(x) title 'Sine Function', tan(x) title 'Tangent' + +![learnmath-gnuplot-plot2](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-plot2.png) + +使用`splot`命令，你可以给的东西更深入一点并且绘制3D图形 + + splot sin(x*y/20) + +![learnmath-gnuplot-plot3](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-plot3.png) + +这个窗口有几个基本的配置选项, + +![learnmath-gnuplot-options](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-options.png) + +但是`gnuplot`的真正力量在于在它的命令行和脚本功能，`gnuplot`广泛完整的文档可在这里找到，并在[Duke大学网站][8]上面看见这个了不起的教程[7]的原始版本。 + +### Maxima ### + +[Maxima][9]是从Macsyma原始资料开发的一个计算机代数系统，根据它的 SourceForge 页面， + +> “Maxima是符号和数值的表达，包括微分，积分，泰勒级数，拉普拉斯变换，常微分方程，线性方程组，多项式，集合，列表，向量，矩阵和张量系统的操纵系统。Maxima通过精确的分数，任意精度的整数和可变精度浮点数产生高精度的计算结果。Maxima可以二维和三维中绘制函数和数据。“ + +你将会获得二进制包用于大多数Ubuntu衍生系统的Maxima以及它的图形界面中，插入所有包，输入： + + sudo apt-get install maxima xmaxima wxmaxima + +在终端窗口中，Maxima是一个没有太多UI的命令行工具，但如果你开始wxmaxima，你会进入一个简单但功能强大的图形用户界面。 + +![learnmath-maxima](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima.png) + +你可以开始输入这个来简单的一个开始。（提示：如果你想计算一个表达式，使用“Shift + Enter”回车后会增加更多的方法） + +Maxima可以用于一些简单的问题，因此也可以作为一个计算器， + +![learnmath-maxima-1and1](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-1and1.png) + +以及一些更复杂的问题, + +![learnmath-maxima-functions](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-functions.png) + +它使用`gnuplot`使得绘制简单, + +![learnmath-maxima-plot](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-plot.png) + +或者绘制一些复杂的图形. + +![learnmath-maxima-plot2](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-plot2.png) + +（它需要gnuplot-X11的包，来显示它们。） + +除了美化一些图形，Maxima也尽可能用latex格式导出它们，或者通过右键是捷菜单进行一些突出的操作. + +![learnmath-maxima-menu](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-menu.png) + +然而其主菜单还是提供了大量压倒性的功能，当然Maxima的功能远不止如此，这里也有一个广泛使用的在线文档。 + +### 总结 ### + +数学不是一个简单的学科，这些在Linux上的优秀软件也没有使得数学更加简单，但是这些应用使得使用数学变得更加的简单和工程化。以上两种应用都只是介绍一下Linux的所提供的。如果你是认真从事数学和需要更多的功能与丰富的文档，那你更应该看看这些Mathbuntu项目。 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[KnightJoker](https://github.com/KnightJoker/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ +[1]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/series/learn-with-linux/ +[2]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-to-type-in-linux/ +[3]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-physics-simulation/ +[4]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-learning-music/ +[5]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-geography-apps/ +[6]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ +[7]:http://www.gnuplot.info/documentation.html +[8]:http://people.duke.edu/~hpgavin/gnuplot.html +[9]:http://maxima.sourceforge.net/ +[10]:http://maxima.sourceforge.net/documentation.html +[11]:http://www.mathbuntu.org/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Physics Simulation.md b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Physics Simulation.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2a8415dda7 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Physics Simulation.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +Learn with Linux: Physics Simulation +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/physics-fetured.jpg) + +This article is part of the [Learn with Linux][1] series: + +- [Learn with Linux: Learning to Type][2] +- [Learn with Linux: Physics Simulation][3] +- [Learn with Linux: Learning Music][4] +- [Learn with Linux: Two Geography Apps][5] +- [Learn with Linux: Master Your Math with These Linux Apps][6] + +Linux offers great educational software and many excellent tools to aid students of all grades and ages in learning and practicing a variety of topics, often interactively. The “Learn with Linux” series of articles offers an introduction to a variety of educational apps and software. + +Physics is an interesting subject, and arguably the most enjoyable part of any Physics class/lecture are the demonstrations. It is really nice to see physics in action, yet the experiments do not need to be restricted to the classroom. While Linux offers many great tools for scientists to support or conduct experiments, this article will concern a few that would make learning physics easier or more fun. + +### 1. Step ### + +[Step][7] is an interactive physics simulator, part of [KDEEdu, the KDE Education Project][8]. Nobody could better describe what Step does than the people who made it. According to the project webpage, “[Step] works like this: you place some bodies on the scene, add some forces such as gravity or springs, then click “Simulate” and Step shows you how your scene will evolve according to the laws of physics. You can change every property of bodies/forces in your experiment (even during simulation) and see how this will change the outcome of the experiment. With Step, you can not only learn but feel how physics works!” + +While of course it requires Qt and loads of KDE-specific dependencies to work, projects like this (and KDEEdu itself) are part of the reason why KDE is such an awesome environment (if you don’t mind running a heavier desktop, of course). + +Step is in the Debian repositories; to install it on derivatives, simply type + + sudo apt-get install step + +into a terminal. On a KDE system it should have minimal dependencies and install in seconds. + +Step has a simple interface, and it lets you jump right into simulations. + +![physics-step-main](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/physics-step-main.png) + +You will find all available objects on the left-hand side. You can have different particles, gas, shaped objects, springs, and different forces in action. (1) If you select an object, a short description of it will appear on the right-hand side (2). On the right you will also see an overview of the “world” you have created (the objects it contains) (3), the properties of the currently selected object (4), and the steps you have taken so far (5). + +![physics-step-parts](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/physics-step-parts.png) + +Once you have placed all you wanted on the canvas, just press “Simulate,” and watch the events unfold as the objects interact with each other. + +![physics-step-simulate1](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/physics-step-simulate1.png) + +![physics-step-simulate2](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/physics-step-simulate2.png) + +![physics-step-simulate3](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/physics-step-simulate3.png) + +To get to know Step better you only need to press F1. The KDE Help Center offers a great and detailed Step handbook. + +### 2. Lightspeed ### + +Lightspeed is a simple GTK+ and OpenGL based simulator that is meant to demonstrate the effect of how one might observe a fast moving object. Lightspeed will simulate these effects based on Einstein’s special relativity. According to [their sourceforge page][9] “When an object accelerates to more than a few million meters per second, it begins to appear warped and discolored in strange and unusual ways, and as it approaches the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s) the effects become more and more bizarre. In addition, the manner in which the object is distorted varies drastically with the viewpoint from which it is observed.” + +These effects which come into play at relative velocities are: + +- **The Lorentz contraction** – causes the object to appear shorter +- **The Doppler red/blue shift** – alters the hues of color observed +- **The headlight effect** – brightens or darkens the object +- **Optical aberration** – deforms the object in unusual ways + +Lightspeed is in the Debian repositories; to install it, simply type: + + sudo apt-get install lightspeed + +The user interface is very simple. You get a shape (more can be downloaded from sourceforge) which would move along the x-axis (animation can be started by processing “A” or by selecting it from the object menu). + +![physics-lightspeed](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/08/physics-lightspeed.png) + +You control the speed of its movement with the right-hand side slider and watch how it deforms. + +![physics-lightspeed-deform](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/08/physics-lightspeed-deform.png) + +Some simple controls will allow you to add more visual elements + +![physics-lightspeed-visual](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/08/physics-lightspeed-visual.png) + +The viewing angles can be adjusted by pressing either the left, middle or right button and dragging the mouse or from the Camera menu that also offers some other adjustments like background colour or graphics mode. + +### Notable mention: Physion ### + +Physion looks like an interesting project and a great looking software to simulate physics in a much more colorful and fun way than the above examples would allow. Unfortunately, at the time of writing, the [official website][10] was experiencing problems, and the download page was unavailable. + +Judging from their Youtube videos, Physion must be worth installing once a download line becomes available. Until then we can just enjoy the this video demo. + +注：youtube 视频 + + +Do you have another favorite physics simulation/demonstration/learning applications for Linux? Please share with us in the comments below. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-physics-simulation/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ +[1]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/series/learn-with-linux/ +[2]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-to-type-in-linux/ +[3]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-physics-simulation/ +[4]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-learning-music/ +[5]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-geography-apps/ +[6]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ +[7]:https://edu.kde.org/applications/all/step +[8]:https://edu.kde.org/ +[9]:http://lightspeed.sourceforge.net/ +[10]:http://www.physion.net/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Two Geography Apps.md b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Two Geography Apps.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a31e1f73b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/Learn with Linux/Learn with Linux--Two Geography Apps.md @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +Learn with Linux: Two Geography Apps +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-featured.png) + +This article is part of the [Learn with Linux][1] series: + +- [Learn with Linux: Learning to Type][2] +- [Learn with Linux: Physics Simulation][3] +- [Learn with Linux: Learning Music][4] +- [Learn with Linux: Two Geography Apps][5] +- [Learn with Linux: Master Your Math with These Linux Apps][6] + +Linux offers great educational software and many excellent tools to aid students of all grades and ages in learning and practicing a variety of topics, often interactively. The “Learn with Linux” series of articles offers an introduction to a variety of educational apps and software. + +Geography is an interesting subject, used by many of us day to day, often without realizing. But when you fire up GPS, SatNav, or just Google maps, you are using the geographical data provided by this software with the maps drawn by cartographists. When you hear about a certain country in the news or hear financial data being recited, these all fall under the umbrella of geography. And you have some great Linux software to study and practice these, whether it is for school or your own improvement. + +### Kgeography ### + +There are only two geography-related applications readily available in most Linux repositories, and both of these are KDE applications, in fact part of the KDE Educatonal project. Kgeography uses simple color-coded maps of any selected country. + +To install kegeography just type + + sudo apt-get install kgeography + +into a terminal window of any Ubuntu-based distribution. + +The interface is very basic. You are first presented with a picker menu that lets you choose an area map. + +![learn-geography-kgeo-pick](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-kgeo-pick.png) + +On the map you can display the name and capital of any given territory by clicking on it, + +![learn-geography-kgeo-brit](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-kgeo-brit.png) + +and test your knowledge in different quizzes. + +![learn-geography-kgeo-test](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-kgeo-test.png) + +It is an interactive way to test your basic geographical knowledge and could be an excellent tool to help you prepare for exams. + +### Marble ### + +Marble is a somewhat more advanced software, offering a global view of the world without the need of 3D acceleration. + +![learn-geography-marble-main](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-main.png) + +To get Marble, type + + sudo apt-get install marble + +into a terminal window of any Ubuntu-based distribution. + +Marble focuses on cartography, its main view being that of an atlas. + +![learn-geography-marble-atlas](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-atlas.jpg) + +You can have different projections, like Globe or Mercator displayed as defaults, with flat and other exotic views available from a drop-down menu. The surfaces include the basic Atlas view, a full-fledged offline map powered by OpenStreetMap, + +![learn-geography-marble-map](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-map.jpg) + +satellite view (by NASA), + +![learn-geography-marble-satellite](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-satellite.jpg) + +and political and even historical maps of the world, among others. + +![learn-geography-marble-history](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-history.jpg) + +Besides providing great offline maps with different skins and varying amount of data, Marble offers other types of information as well. You can switch on and off various offline info-boxes + +![learn-geography-marble-offline](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-offline.png) + +and online services from the menu. + +![learn-geography-marble-online](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-online.png) + +An interesting online service is Wikipedia integration. Clicking on the little Wiki logos will bring up a pop-up featuring detailed information about the selected places. + +![learn-geography-marble-wiki](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learn-geography-marble-wiki.png) + +The software also includes options for location tracking, route planning, and searching for locations, among other great and useful features. If you enjoy cartography, Marble offers hours of fun exploring and learning. + +### Conclusion ### + +Linux offers many great educational applications, and the subject of geography is no exception. With the above two programs you can learn a lot about our globe and test your knowledge in a fun and interactive manner. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-geography-apps/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ +[1]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/series/learn-with-linux/ +[2]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-to-type-in-linux/ +[3]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-physics-simulation/ +[4]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-learning-music/ +[5]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-geography-apps/ +[6]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RAID/Part 6 - Setting Up RAID 10 or 1+0 (Nested) in Linux.md b/sources/tech/RAID/Part 6 - Setting Up RAID 10 or 1+0 (Nested) in Linux.md deleted file mode 100644 index a08903e00e..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RAID/Part 6 - Setting Up RAID 10 or 1+0 (Nested) in Linux.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,276 +0,0 @@ -struggling 翻译中 -Setting Up RAID 10 or 1+0 (Nested) in Linux – Part 6 -================================================================================ -RAID 10 is a combine of RAID 0 and RAID 1 to form a RAID 10. To setup Raid 10, we need at least 4 number of disks. In our earlier articles, we’ve seen how to setup a RAID 0 and RAID 1 with minimum 2 number of disks. - -Here we will use both RAID 0 and RAID 1 to perform a Raid 10 setup with minimum of 4 drives. Assume, that we’ve some data saved to logical volume, which is created with RAID 10. Just for an example, if we are saving a data “apple” this will be saved under all 4 disk by this following method. - -![Create Raid 10 in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/raid10.jpg) - -Create Raid 10 in Linux - -Using RAID 0 it will save as “A” in first disk and “p” in the second disk, then again “p” in first disk and “l” in second disk. Then “e” in first disk, like this it will continue the Round robin process to save the data. From this we come to know that RAID 0 will write the half of the data to first disk and other half of the data to second disk. - -In RAID 1 method, same data will be written to other 2 disks as follows. “A” will write to both first and second disks, “P” will write to both disk, Again other “P” will write to both the disks. Thus using RAID 1 it will write to both the disks. This will continue in round robin process. - -Now you all came to know that how RAID 10 works by combining of both RAID 0 and RAID 1. If we have 4 number of 20 GB size disks, it will be 80 GB in total, but we will get only 40 GB of Storage capacity, the half of total capacity will be lost for building RAID 10. - -#### Pros and Cons of RAID 5 #### - -- Gives better performance. -- We will loose two of the disk capacity in RAID 10. -- Reading and writing will be very good, because it will write and read to all those 4 disk at the same time. -- It can be used for Database solutions, which needs a high I/O disk writes. - -#### Requirements #### - -In RAID 10, we need minimum of 4 disks, the first 2 disks for RAID 0 and other 2 Disks for RAID 1. Like I said before, RAID 10 is just a Combine of RAID 0 & 1. If we need to extended the RAID group, we must increase the disk by minimum 4 disks. - -**My Server Setup** - - Operating System : CentOS 6.5 Final - IP Address : 192.168.0.229 - Hostname : rd10.tecmintlocal.com - Disk 1 [20GB] : /dev/sdd - Disk 2 [20GB] : /dev/sdc - Disk 3 [20GB] : /dev/sdd - Disk 4 [20GB] : /dev/sde - -There are two ways to setup RAID 10, but here I’m going to show you both methods, but I prefer you to follow the first method, which makes the work lot easier for setting up a RAID 10. - -### Method 1: Setting Up Raid 10 ### - -1. First, verify that all the 4 added disks are detected or not using the following command. - - # ls -l /dev | grep sd - -2. Once the four disks are detected, it’s time to check for the drives whether there is already any raid existed before creating a new one. - - # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e] - # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd /dev/sde - -![Verify 4 Added Disks](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Verify-4-Added-Disks.png) - -Verify 4 Added Disks - -**Note**: In the above output, you see there isn’t any super-block detected yet, that means there is no RAID defined in all 4 drives. - -#### Step 1: Drive Partitioning for RAID #### - -3. Now create a new partition on all 4 disks (/dev/sdb, /dev/sdc, /dev/sdd and /dev/sde) using the ‘fdisk’ tool. - - # fdisk /dev/sdb - # fdisk /dev/sdc - # fdisk /dev/sdd - # fdisk /dev/sde - -**Create /dev/sdb Partition** - -Let me show you how to partition one of the disk (/dev/sdb) using fdisk, this steps will be the same for all the other disks too. - - # fdisk /dev/sdb - -Please use the below steps for creating a new partition on /dev/sdb drive. - -- Press ‘n‘ for creating new partition. -- Then choose ‘P‘ for Primary partition. -- Then choose ‘1‘ to be the first partition. -- Next press ‘p‘ to print the created partition. -- Change the Type, If we need to know the every available types Press ‘L‘. -- Here, we are selecting ‘fd‘ as my type is RAID. -- Next press ‘p‘ to print the defined partition. -- Then again use ‘p‘ to print the changes what we have made. -- Use ‘w‘ to write the changes. - -![Disk sdb Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Disk-sdb-Partition.png) - -Disk sdb Partition - -**Note**: Please use the above same instructions for creating partitions on other disks (sdc, sdd sdd sde). - -4. After creating all 4 partitions, again you need to examine the drives for any already existing raid using the following command. - - # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e] - # mdadm -E /dev/sd[b-e]1 - - OR - - # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd /dev/sde - # mdadm --examine /dev/sdb1 /dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 /dev/sde1 - -![Check All Disks for Raid](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-All-Disks-for-Raid.png) - -Check All Disks for Raid - -**Note**: The above outputs shows that there isn’t any super-block detected on all four newly created partitions, that means we can move forward to create RAID 10 on these drives. - -#### Step 2: Creating ‘md’ RAID Device #### - -5. Now it’s time to create a ‘md’ (i.e. /dev/md0) device, using ‘mdadm’ raid management tool. Before, creating device, your system must have ‘mdadm’ tool installed, if not install it first. - - # yum install mdadm [on RedHat systems] - # apt-get install mdadm [on Debain systems] - -Once ‘mdadm’ tool installed, you can now create a ‘md’ raid device using the following command. - - # mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=10 --raid-devices=4 /dev/sd[b-e]1 - -6. Next verify the newly created raid device using the ‘cat’ command. - - # cat /proc/mdstat - -![Create md raid Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-md-raid-Device.png) - -Create md raid Device - -7. Next, examine all the 4 drives using the below command. The output of the below command will be long as it displays the information of all 4 disks. - - # mdadm --examine /dev/sd[b-e]1 - -8. Next, check the details of Raid Array with the help of following command. - - # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 - -![Check Raid Array Details](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-Array-Details.png) - -Check Raid Array Details - -**Note**: You see in the above results, that the status of Raid was active and re-syncing. - -#### Step 3: Creating Filesystem #### - -9. Create a file system using ext4 for ‘md0′ and mount it under ‘/mnt/raid10‘. Here, I’ve used ext4, but you can use any filesystem type if you want. - - # mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0 - -![Create md Filesystem](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-md-Filesystem.png) - -Create md Filesystem - -10. After creating filesystem, mount the created file-system under ‘/mnt/raid10‘ and list the contents of the mount point using ‘ls -l’ command. - - # mkdir /mnt/raid10 - # mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid10/ - # ls -l /mnt/raid10/ - -Next, add some files under mount point and append some text in any one of the file and check the content. - - # touch /mnt/raid10/raid10_files.txt - # ls -l /mnt/raid10/ - # echo "raid 10 setup with 4 disks" > /mnt/raid10/raid10_files.txt - # cat /mnt/raid10/raid10_files.txt - -![Mount md Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Mount-md-Device.png) - -Mount md Device - -11. For automounting, open the ‘/etc/fstab‘ file and append the below entry in fstab, may be mount point will differ according to your environment. Save and quit using wq!. - - # vim /etc/fstab - - /dev/md0 /mnt/raid10 ext4 defaults 0 0 - -![AutoMount md Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/AutoMount-md-Device.png) - -AutoMount md Device - -12. Next, verify the ‘/etc/fstab‘ file for any errors before restarting the system using ‘mount -a‘ command. - - # mount -av - -![Check Errors in Fstab](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Errors-in-Fstab.png) - -Check Errors in Fstab - -#### Step 4: Save RAID Configuration #### - -13. By default RAID don’t have a config file, so we need to save it manually after making all the above steps, to preserve these settings during system boot. - - # mdadm --detail --scan --verbose >> /etc/mdadm.conf - -![Save Raid10 Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Save-Raid10-Configuration.png) - -Save Raid10 Configuration - -That’s it, we have created RAID 10 using method 1, this method is the easier one. Now let’s move forward to setup RAID 10 using method 2. - -### Method 2: Creating RAID 10 ### - -1. In method 2, we have to define 2 sets of RAID 1 and then we need to define a RAID 0 using those created RAID 1 sets. Here, what we will do is to first create 2 mirrors (RAID1) and then striping over RAID0. - -First, list the disks which are all available for creating RAID 10. - - # ls -l /dev | grep sd - -![List 4 Devices](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/List-4-Devices.png) - -List 4 Devices - -2. Partition the all 4 disks using ‘fdisk’ command. For partitioning, you can follow #step 3 above. - - # fdisk /dev/sdb - # fdisk /dev/sdc - # fdisk /dev/sdd - # fdisk /dev/sde - -3. After partitioning all 4 disks, now examine the disks for any existing raid blocks. - - # mdadm --examine /dev/sd[b-e] - # mdadm --examine /dev/sd[b-e]1 - -![Examine 4 Disks](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Examine-4-Disks.png) - -Examine 4 Disks - -#### Step 1: Creating RAID 1 #### - -4. First let me create 2 sets of RAID 1 using 4 disks ‘sdb1′ and ‘sdc1′ and other set using ‘sdd1′ & ‘sde1′. - - # mdadm --create /dev/md1 --metadata=1.2 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sd[b-c]1 - # mdadm --create /dev/md2 --metadata=1.2 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sd[d-e]1 - # cat /proc/mdstat - -![Creating Raid 1](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Creating-Raid-1.png) - -Creating Raid 1 - -![Check Details of Raid 1](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Creating-Raid-1.png) - -Check Details of Raid 1 - -#### Step 2: Creating RAID 0 #### - -5. Next, create the RAID 0 using md1 and md2 devices. - - # mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=0 --raid-devices=2 /dev/md1 /dev/md2 - # cat /proc/mdstat - -![Creating Raid 0](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Creating-Raid-0.png) - -Creating Raid 0 - -#### Step 3: Save RAID Configuration #### - -6. We need to save the Configuration under ‘/etc/mdadm.conf‘ to load all raid devices in every reboot times. - - # mdadm --detail --scan --verbose >> /etc/mdadm.conf - -After this, we need to follow #step 3 Creating file system of method 1. - -That’s it! we have created RAID 1+0 using method 2. We will loose two disks space here, but the performance will be excellent compared to any other raid setups. - -### Conclusion ### - -Here we have created RAID 10 using two methods. RAID 10 has good performance and redundancy too. Hope this helps you to understand about RAID 10 Nested Raid level. Let us see how to grow an existing raid array and much more in my upcoming articles. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid-10-in-linux/ - -作者：[Babin Lonston][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/babinlonston/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RAID/Part 7 - Growing an Existing RAID Array and Removing Failed Disks in Raid.md b/sources/tech/RAID/Part 7 - Growing an Existing RAID Array and Removing Failed Disks in Raid.md deleted file mode 100644 index 76039f4371..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RAID/Part 7 - Growing an Existing RAID Array and Removing Failed Disks in Raid.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,180 +0,0 @@ -struggling 翻译中 -Growing an Existing RAID Array and Removing Failed Disks in Raid – Part 7 -================================================================================ -Every newbies will get confuse of the word array. Array is just a collection of disks. In other words, we can call array as a set or group. Just like a set of eggs containing 6 numbers. Likewise RAID Array contains number of disks, it may be 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16 etc. Hope now you know what Array is. - -Here we will see how to grow (extend) an existing array or raid group. For example, if we are using 2 disks in an array to form a raid 1 set, and in some situation if we need more space in that group, we can extend the size of an array using mdadm –grow command, just by adding one of the disk to the existing array. After growing (adding disk to an existing array), we will see how to remove one of the failed disk from array. - -![Grow Raid Array in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Growing-Raid-Array.jpg) - -Growing Raid Array and Removing Failed Disks - -Assume that one of the disk is little weak and need to remove that disk, till it fails let it under use, but we need to add one of the spare drive and grow the mirror before it fails, because we need to save our data. While the weak disk fails we can remove it from array this is the concept we are going to see in this topic. - -#### Features of RAID Growth #### - -- We can grow (extend) the size of any raid set. -- We can remove the faulty disk after growing raid array with new disk. -- We can grow raid array without any downtime. - -Requirements - -- To grow an RAID array, we need an existing RAID set (Array). -- We need extra disks to grow the Array. -- Here I’m using 1 disk to grow the existing array. - -Before we learn about growing and recovering of Array, we have to know about the basics of RAID levels and setups. Follow the below links to know about those setups. - -- [Understanding Basic RAID Concepts – Part 1][1] -- [Creating a Software Raid 0 in Linux – Part 2][2] - -#### My Server Setup #### - - Operating System : CentOS 6.5 Final - IP Address : 192.168.0.230 - Hostname : grow.tecmintlocal.com - 2 Existing Disks : 1 GB - 1 Additional Disk : 1 GB - -Here, my already existing RAID has 2 number of disks with each size is 1GB and we are now adding one more disk whose size is 1GB to our existing raid array. - -### Growing an Existing RAID Array ### - -1. Before growing an array, first list the existing Raid array using the following command. - - # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 - -![Check Existing Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Existing-Raid-Array.png) - -Check Existing Raid Array - -**Note**: The above output shows that I’ve already has two disks in Raid array with raid1 level. Now here we are adding one more disk to an existing array, - -2. Now let’s add the new disk “sdd” and create a partition using ‘fdisk‘ command. - - # fdisk /dev/sdd - -Please use the below instructions to create a partition on /dev/sdd drive. - -- Press ‘n‘ for creating new partition. -- Then choose ‘P‘ for Primary partition. -- Then choose ‘1‘ to be the first partition. -- Next press ‘p‘ to print the created partition. -- Here, we are selecting ‘fd‘ as my type is RAID. -- Next press ‘p‘ to print the defined partition. -- Then again use ‘p‘ to print the changes what we have made. -- Use ‘w‘ to write the changes. - -![Create New Partition in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Create-New-sdd-Partition.png) - -Create New sdd Partition - -3. Once new sdd partition created, you can verify it using below command. - - # ls -l /dev/ | grep sd - -![Confirm sdd Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Confirm-sdd-Partition.png) - -Confirm sdd Partition - -4. Next, examine the newly created disk for any existing raid, before adding to the array. - - # mdadm --examine /dev/sdd1 - -![Check Raid on sdd Partition](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Check-Raid-on-sdd-Partition.png) - -Check Raid on sdd Partition - -**Note**: The above output shows that the disk has no super-blocks detected, means we can move forward to add a new disk to an existing array. - -4. To add the new partition /dev/sdd1 in existing array md0, use the following command. - - # mdadm --manage /dev/md0 --add /dev/sdd1 - -![Add Disk To Raid-Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Add-Disk-To-Raid-Array.png) - -Add Disk To Raid-Array - -5. Once the new disk has been added, check for the added disk in our array using. - - # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 - -![Confirm Disk Added to Raid](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Confirm-Disk-Added-To-Raid.png) - -Confirm Disk Added to Raid - -**Note**: In the above output, you can see the drive has been added as a spare. Here, we already having 2 disks in the array, but what we are expecting is 3 devices in array for that we need to grow the array. - -6. To grow the array we have to use the below command. - - # mdadm --grow --raid-devices=3 /dev/md0 - -![Grow Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Grow-Raid-Array.png) - -Grow Raid Array - -Now we can see the third disk (sdd1) has been added to array, after adding third disk it will sync the data from other two disks. - - # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 - -![Confirm Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Confirm-Raid-Array.png) - -Confirm Raid Array - -**Note**: For large size disk it will take hours to sync the contents. Here I have used 1GB virtual disk, so its done very quickly within seconds. - -### Removing Disks from Array ### - -7. After the data has been synced to new disk ‘sdd1‘ from other two disks, that means all three disks now have same contents. - -As I told earlier let’s assume that one of the disk is weak and needs to be removed, before it fails. So, now assume disk ‘sdc1‘ is weak and needs to be removed from an existing array. - -Before removing a disk we have to mark the disk as failed one, then only we can able to remove it. - - # mdadm --fail /dev/md0 /dev/sdc1 - # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 - -![Disk Fail in Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Disk-Fail-in-Raid-Array.png) - -Disk Fail in Raid Array - -From the above output, we clearly see that the disk was marked as faulty at the bottom. Even its faulty, we can see the raid devices are 3, failed 1 and state was degraded. - -Now we have to remove the faulty drive from the array and grow the array with 2 devices, so that the raid devices will be set to 2 devices as before. - - # mdadm --remove /dev/md0 /dev/sdc1 - -![Remove Disk in Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Remove-Disk-in-Raid-Array.png) - -Remove Disk in Raid Array - -8. Once the faulty drive is removed, now we’ve to grow the raid array using 2 disks. - - # mdadm --grow --raid-devices=2 /dev/md0 - # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 - -![Grow Disks in Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Grow-Disks-in-Raid-Array.png) - -Grow Disks in Raid Array - -From the about output, you can see that our array having only 2 devices. If you need to grow the array again, follow the same steps as described above. If you need to add a drive as spare, mark it as spare so that if the disk fails, it will automatically active and rebuild. - -### Conclusion ### - -In the article, we’ve seen how to grow an existing raid set and how to remove a faulty disk from an array after re-syncing the existing contents. All these steps can be done without any downtime. During data syncing, system users, files and applications will not get affected in any case. - -In next, article I will show you how to manage the RAID, till then stay tuned to updates and don’t forget to add your comments. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/grow-raid-array-in-linux/ - -作者：[Babin Lonston][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/babinlonston/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/understanding-raid-setup-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid0-in-linux/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RAID/Part 8 - How to Recover Data and Rebuild Failed Software RAID's.md b/sources/tech/RAID/Part 8 - How to Recover Data and Rebuild Failed Software RAID's.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2acf1dfd86 --- /dev/null +++ b/sources/tech/RAID/Part 8 - How to Recover Data and Rebuild Failed Software RAID's.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +How to Recover Data and Rebuild Failed Software RAID’s – Part 8 +================================================================================ +In the previous articles of this [RAID series][1] you went from zero to RAID hero. We reviewed several software RAID configurations and explained the essentials of each one, along with the reasons why you would lean towards one or the other depending on your specific scenario. + +![Recover Rebuild Failed Software RAID's](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Recover-Rebuild-Failed-Software-RAID.png) + +Recover Rebuild Failed Software RAID’s – Part 8 + +In this guide we will discuss how to rebuild a software RAID array without data loss when in the event of a disk failure. For brevity, we will only consider a RAID 1 setup – but the concepts and commands apply to all cases alike. + +#### RAID Testing Scenario #### + +Before proceeding further, please make sure you have set up a RAID 1 array following the instructions provided in Part 3 of this series: [How to set up RAID 1 (Mirror) in Linux][2]. + +The only variations in our present case will be: + +1) a different version of CentOS (v7) than the one used in that article (v6.5), and + +2) different disk sizes for /dev/sdb and /dev/sdc (8 GB each). + +In addition, if SELinux is enabled in enforcing mode, you will need to add the corresponding labels to the directory where you’ll mount the RAID device. Otherwise, you’ll run into this warning message while attempting to mount it: + +![SELinux RAID Mount Error](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/SELinux-RAID-Mount-Error.png) + +SELinux RAID Mount Error + +You can fix this by running: + + # restorecon -R /mnt/raid1 + +### Setting up RAID Monitoring ### + +There is a variety of reasons why a storage device can fail (SSDs have greatly reduced the chances of this happening, though), but regardless of the cause you can be sure that issues can occur anytime and you need to be prepared to replace the failed part and to ensure the availability and integrity of your data. + +A word of advice first. Even when you can inspect /proc/mdstat in order to check the status of your RAIDs, there’s a better and time-saving method that consists of running mdadm in monitor + scan mode, which will send alerts via email to a predefined recipient. + +To set this up, add the following line in /etc/mdadm.conf: + + MAILADDR user@ + +In my case: + + MAILADDR gacanepa@localhost + +![RAID Monitoring Email Alerts](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/RAID-Monitoring-Email-Alerts.png) + +RAID Monitoring Email Alerts + +To run mdadm in monitor + scan mode, add the following crontab entry as root: + + @reboot /sbin/mdadm --monitor --scan --oneshot + +By default, mdadm will check the RAID arrays every 60 seconds and send an alert if it finds an issue. You can modify this behavior by adding the `--delay` option to the crontab entry above along with the amount of seconds (for example, `--delay` 1800 means 30 minutes). + +Finally, make sure you have a Mail User Agent (MUA) installed, such as [mutt or mailx][3]. Otherwise, you will not receive any alerts. + +In a minute we will see what an alert sent by mdadm looks like. + +### Simulating and Replacing a failed RAID Storage Device ### + +To simulate an issue with one of the storage devices in the RAID array, we will use the `--manage` and `--set-faulty` options as follows: + + # mdadm --manage --set-faulty /dev/md0 /dev/sdc1 + +This will result in /dev/sdc1 being marked as faulty, as we can see in /proc/mdstat: + +![Stimulate Issue with RAID Storage](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Stimulate-Issue-with-RAID-Storage.png) + +Stimulate Issue with RAID Storage + +More importantly, let’s see if we received an email alert with the same warning: + +![Email Alert on Failed RAID Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Email-Alert-on-Failed-RAID-Device.png) + +Email Alert on Failed RAID Device + +In this case, you will need to remove the device from the software RAID array: + + # mdadm /dev/md0 --remove /dev/sdc1 + +Then you can physically remove it from the machine and replace it with a spare part (/dev/sdd, where a partition of type fd has been previously created): + + # mdadm --manage /dev/md0 --add /dev/sdd1 + +Luckily for us, the system will automatically start rebuilding the array with the part that we just added. We can test this by marking /dev/sdb1 as faulty, removing it from the array, and making sure that the file tecmint.txt is still accessible at /mnt/raid1: + + # mdadm --detail /dev/md0 + # mount | grep raid1 + # ls -l /mnt/raid1 | grep tecmint + # cat /mnt/raid1/tecmint.txt + +![Confirm Rebuilding RAID Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Rebuilding-RAID-Array.png) + +Confirm Rebuilding RAID Array + +The image above clearly shows that after adding /dev/sdd1 to the array as a replacement for /dev/sdc1, the rebuilding of data was automatically performed by the system without intervention on our part. + +Though not strictly required, it’s a great idea to have a spare device in handy so that the process of replacing the faulty device with a good drive can be done in a snap. To do that, let’s re-add /dev/sdb1 and /dev/sdc1: + + # mdadm --manage /dev/md0 --add /dev/sdb1 + # mdadm --manage /dev/md0 --add /dev/sdc1 + +![Replace Failed Raid Device](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Replace-Failed-Raid-Device.png) + +Replace Failed Raid Device + +### Recovering from a Redundancy Loss ### + +As explained earlier, mdadm will automatically rebuild the data when one disk fails. But what happens if 2 disks in the array fail? Let’s simulate such scenario by marking /dev/sdb1 and /dev/sdd1 as faulty: + + # umount /mnt/raid1 + # mdadm --manage --set-faulty /dev/md0 /dev/sdb1 + # mdadm --stop /dev/md0 + # mdadm --manage --set-faulty /dev/md0 /dev/sdd1 + +Attempts to re-create the array the same way it was created at this time (or using the `--assume-clean` option) may result in data loss, so it should be left as a last resort. + +Let’s try to recover the data from /dev/sdb1, for example, into a similar disk partition (/dev/sde1 – note that this requires that you create a partition of type fd in /dev/sde before proceeding) using ddrescue: + + # ddrescue -r 2 /dev/sdb1 /dev/sde1 + +![Recovering Raid Array](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Recovering-Raid-Array.png) + +Recovering Raid Array + +Please note that up to this point, we haven’t touched /dev/sdb or /dev/sdd, the partitions that were part of the RAID array. + +Now let’s rebuild the array using /dev/sde1 and /dev/sdf1: + + # mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=mirror --raid-devices=2 /dev/sd[e-f]1 + +Please note that in a real situation, you will typically use the same device names as with the original array, that is, /dev/sdb1 and /dev/sdc1 after the failed disks have been replaced with new ones. + +In this article I have chosen to use extra devices to re-create the array with brand new disks and to avoid confusion with the original failed drives. + +When asked whether to continue writing array, type Y and press Enter. The array should be started and you should be able to watch its progress with: + + # watch -n 1 cat /proc/mdstat + +When the process completes, you should be able to access the content of your RAID: + +![Confirm Raid Content](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Raid-Content.png) + +Confirm Raid Content + +### Summary ### + +In this article we have reviewed how to recover from RAID failures and redundancy losses. However, you need to remember that this technology is a storage solution and DOES NOT replace backups. + +The principles explained in this guide apply to all RAID setups alike, as well as the concepts that we will cover in the next and final guide of this series (RAID management). + +If you have any questions about this article, feel free to drop us a note using the comment form below. We look forward to hearing from you! + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/recover-data-and-rebuild-failed-software-raid/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/understanding-raid-setup-in-linux/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/create-raid1-in-linux/ +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/send-mail-from-command-line-using-mutt-command/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 03--How to Manage Users and Groups in RHEL 7.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 03--How to Manage Users and Groups in RHEL 7.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0b85744c6c..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 03--How to Manage Users and Groups in RHEL 7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,249 +0,0 @@ -[translated by xiqingongzi] -RHCSA Series: How to Manage Users and Groups in RHEL 7 – Part 3 -================================================================================ -Managing a RHEL 7 server, as it is the case with any other Linux server, will require that you know how to add, edit, suspend, or delete user accounts, and grant users the necessary permissions to files, directories, and other system resources to perform their assigned tasks. - -![User and Group Management in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/User-and-Group-Management-in-Linux.png) - -RHCSA: User and Group Management – Part 3 - -### Managing User Accounts ### - -To add a new user account to a RHEL 7 server, you can run either of the following two commands as root: - - # adduser [new_account] - # useradd [new_account] - -When a new user account is added, by default the following operations are performed. - -- His/her home directory is created (`/home/username` unless specified otherwise). -- These `.bash_logout`, `.bash_profile` and `.bashrc` hidden files are copied inside the user’s home directory, and will be used to provide environment variables for his/her user session. You can explore each of them for further details. -- A mail spool directory is created for the added user account. -- A group is created with the same name as the new user account. - -The full account summary is stored in the `/etc/passwd `file. This file holds a record per system user account and has the following format (fields are separated by a colon): - - [username]:[x]:[UID]:[GID]:[Comment]:[Home directory]:[Default shell] - -- These two fields `[username]` and `[Comment]` are self explanatory. -- The second filed ‘x’ indicates that the account is secured by a shadowed password (in `/etc/shadow`), which is used to logon as `[username]`. -- The fields `[UID]` and `[GID]` are integers that shows the User IDentification and the primary Group IDentification to which `[username]` belongs, equally. - -Finally, - -- The `[Home directory]` shows the absolute location of `[username]’s` home directory, and -- `[Default shell]` is the shell that is commit to this user when he/she logins into the system. - -Another important file that you must become familiar with is `/etc/group`, where group information is stored. As it is the case with `/etc/passwd`, there is one record per line and its fields are also delimited by a colon: - - [Group name]:[Group password]:[GID]:[Group members] - -where, - -- `[Group name]` is the name of group. -- Does this group use a group password? (An “x” means no). -- `[GID]`: same as in `/etc/passwd`. -- `[Group members]`: a list of users, separated by commas, that are members of each group. - -After adding an account, at anytime, you can edit the user’s account information using usermod, whose basic syntax is: - - # usermod [options] [username] - -Read Also: - -- [15 ‘useradd’ Command Examples][1] -- [15 ‘usermod’ Command Examples][2] - -#### EXAMPLE 1: Setting the expiry date for an account #### - -If you work for a company that has some kind of policy to enable account for a certain interval of time, or if you want to grant access to a limited period of time, you can use the `--expiredate` flag followed by a date in YYYY-MM-DD format. To verify that the change has been applied, you can compare the output of - - # chage -l [username] - -before and after updating the account expiry date, as shown in the following image. - -![Change User Account Information](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Change-User-Account-Information.png) - -Change User Account Information - -#### EXAMPLE 2: Adding the user to supplementary groups #### - -Besides the primary group that is created when a new user account is added to the system, a user can be added to supplementary groups using the combined -aG, or –append –groups options, followed by a comma separated list of groups. - -#### EXAMPLE 3: Changing the default location of the user’s home directory and / or changing its shell #### - -If for some reason you need to change the default location of the user’s home directory (other than /home/username), you will need to use the -d, or –home options, followed by the absolute path to the new home directory. - -If a user wants to use another shell other than bash (for example, sh), which gets assigned by default, use usermod with the –shell flag, followed by the path to the new shell. - -#### EXAMPLE 4: Displaying the groups an user is a member of #### - -After adding the user to a supplementary group, you can verify that it now actually belongs to such group(s): - - # groups [username] - # id [username] - -The following image depicts Examples 2 through 4: - -![Adding User to Supplementary Group](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Adding-User-to-Supplementary-Group.png) - -Adding User to Supplementary Group - -In the example above: - - # usermod --append --groups gacanepa,users --home /tmp --shell /bin/sh tecmint - -To remove a user from a group, omit the `--append` switch in the command above and list the groups you want the user to belong to following the `--groups` flag. - -#### EXAMPLE 5: Disabling account by locking password #### - -To disable an account, you will need to use either the -l (lowercase L) or the –lock option to lock a user’s password. This will prevent the user from being able to log on. - -#### EXAMPLE 6: Unlocking password #### - -When you need to re-enable the user so that he can log on to the server again, use the -u or the –unlock option to unlock a user’s password that was previously blocked, as explained in Example 5 above. - - # usermod --unlock tecmint - -The following image illustrates Examples 5 and 6: - -![Lock Unlock User Account](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Lock-Unlock-User-Account.png) - -Lock Unlock User Account - -#### EXAMPLE 7: Deleting a group or an user account #### - -To delete a group, you’ll want to use groupdel, whereas to delete a user account you will use userdel (add the –r switch if you also want to delete the contents of its home directory and mail spool): - - # groupdel [group_name] # Delete a group - # userdel -r [user_name] # Remove user_name from the system, along with his/her home directory and mail spool - -If there are files owned by group_name, they will not be deleted, but the group owner will be set to the GID of the group that was deleted. - -### Listing, Setting and Changing Standard ugo/rwx Permissions ### - -The well-known [ls command][3] is one of the best friends of any system administrator. When used with the -l flag, this tool allows you to view a list a directory’s contents in long (or detailed) format. - -However, this command can also be applied to a single file. Either way, the first 10 characters in the output of `ls -l` represent each file’s attributes. - -The first char of this 10-character sequence is used to indicate the file type: - -- – (hyphen): a regular file -- d: a directory -- l: a symbolic link -- c: a character device (which treats data as a stream of bytes, i.e. a terminal) -- b: a block device (which handles data in blocks, i.e. storage devices) - -The next nine characters of the file attributes, divided in groups of three from left to right, are called the file mode and indicate the read (r), write(w), and execute (x) permissions granted to the file’s owner, the file’s group owner, and the rest of the users (commonly referred to as “the world”), respectively. - -While the read permission on a file allows the same to be opened and read, the same permission on a directory allows its contents to be listed if the execute permission is also set. In addition, the execute permission in a file allows it to be handled as a program and run. - -File permissions are changed with the chmod command, whose basic syntax is as follows: - - # chmod [new_mode] file - -where new_mode is either an octal number or an expression that specifies the new permissions. Feel free to use the mode that works best for you in each case. Or perhaps you already have a preferred way to set a file’s permissions – so feel free to use the method that works best for you. - -The octal number can be calculated based on the binary equivalent, which can in turn be obtained from the desired file permissions for the owner of the file, the owner group, and the world.The presence of a certain permission equals a power of 2 (r=22, w=21, x=20), while its absence means 0. For example: - -![File Permissions](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/File-Permissions.png) - -File Permissions - -To set the file’s permissions as indicated above in octal form, type: - - # chmod 744 myfile - -Please take a minute to compare our previous calculation to the actual output of `ls -l` after changing the file’s permissions: - -![Long List Format](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Long-List-Format.png) - -Long List Format - -#### EXAMPLE 8: Searching for files with 777 permissions #### - -As a security measure, you should make sure that files with 777 permissions (read, write, and execute for everyone) are avoided like the plague under normal circumstances. Although we will explain in a later tutorial how to more effectively locate all the files in your system with a certain permission set, you can -by now- combine ls with grep to obtain such information. - -In the following example, we will look for file with 777 permissions in the /etc directory only. Note that we will use pipelining as explained in [Part 2: File and Directory Management][4] of this RHCSA series: - - # ls -l /etc | grep rwxrwxrwx - -![Find All Files with 777 Permission](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Find-All-777-Files.png) - -Find All Files with 777 Permission - -#### EXAMPLE 9: Assigning a specific permission to all users #### - -Shell scripts, along with some binaries that all users should have access to (not just their corresponding owner and group), should have the execute bit set accordingly (please note that we will discuss a special case later): - - # chmod a+x script.sh - -**Note**: That we can also set a file’s mode using an expression that indicates the owner’s rights with the letter `u`, the group owner’s rights with the letter `g`, and the rest with `o`. All of these rights can be represented at the same time with the letter `a`. Permissions are granted (or revoked) with the `+` or `-` signs, respectively. - -![Set Execute Permission on File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Set-Execute-Permission-on-File.png) - -Set Execute Permission on File - -A long directory listing also shows the file’s owner and its group owner in the first and second columns, respectively. This feature serves as a first-level access control method to files in a system: - -![Check File Owner and Group](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Check-File-Owner-and-Group.png) - -Check File Owner and Group - -To change file ownership, you will use the chown command. Note that you can change the file and group ownership at the same time or separately: - - # chown user:group file - -**Note**: That you can change the user or group, or the two attributes at the same time, as long as you don’t forget the colon, leaving user or group blank if you want to update the other attribute, for example: - - # chown :group file # Change group ownership only - # chown user: file # Change user ownership only - -#### EXAMPLE 10: Cloning permissions from one file to another #### - -If you would like to “clone” ownership from one file to another, you can do so using the –reference flag, as follows: - - # chown --reference=ref_file file - -where the owner and group of ref_file will be assigned to file as well: - -![Clone File Ownership](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Clone-File-Ownership.png) - -Clone File Ownership - -### Setting Up SETGID Directories for Collaboration ### - -Should you need to grant access to all the files owned by a certain group inside a specific directory, you will most likely use the approach of setting the setgid bit for such directory. When the setgid bit is set, the effective GID of the real user becomes that of the group owner. - -Thus, any user can access a file under the privileges granted to the group owner of such file. In addition, when the setgid bit is set on a directory, newly created files inherit the same group as the directory, and newly created subdirectories will also inherit the setgid bit of the parent directory. - - # chmod g+s [filename] - -To set the setgid in octal form, prepend the number 2 to the current (or desired) basic permissions. - - # chmod 2755 [directory] - -### Conclusion ### - -A solid knowledge of user and group management, along with standard and special Linux permissions, when coupled with practice, will allow you to quickly identify and troubleshoot issues with file permissions in your RHEL 7 server. - -I assure you that as you follow the steps outlined in this article and use the system documentation (as explained in [Part 1: Reviewing Essential Commands & System Documentation][5] of this series) you will master this essential competence of system administration. - -Feel free to let us know if you have any questions or comments using the form below. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-manage-users-and-groups/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/add-users-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/usermod-command-examples/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/ls-interview-questions/ -[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/file-and-directory-management-in-linux/ -[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-reviewing-essential-commands-system-documentation/ diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 08--Securing SSH, Setting Hostname and Enabling Network Services.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 08--Securing SSH, Setting Hostname and Enabling Network Services.md deleted file mode 100644 index 40fa771580..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 08--Securing SSH, Setting Hostname and Enabling Network Services.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,217 +0,0 @@ -FSSlc translating - -RHCSA Series: Securing SSH, Setting Hostname and Enabling Network Services – Part 8 -================================================================================ -As a system administrator you will often have to log on to remote systems to perform a variety of administration tasks using a terminal emulator. You will rarely sit in front of a real (physical) terminal, so you need to set up a way to log on remotely to the machines that you will be asked to manage. - -In fact, that may be the last thing that you will have to do in front of a physical terminal. For security reasons, using Telnet for this purpose is not a good idea, as all traffic goes through the wire in unencrypted, plain text. - -In addition, in this article we will also review how to configure network services to start automatically at boot and learn how to set up network and hostname resolution statically or dynamically. - -![RHCSA: Secure SSH and Enable Network Services](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Secure-SSH-Server-and-Enable-Network-Services.png) - -RHCSA: Secure SSH and Enable Network Services – Part 8 - -### Installing and Securing SSH Communication ### - -For you to be able to log on remotely to a RHEL 7 box using SSH, you will have to install the openssh, openssh-clients and openssh-servers packages. The following command not only will install the remote login program, but also the secure file transfer tool, as well as the remote file copy utility: - - # yum update && yum install openssh openssh-clients openssh-servers - -Note that it’s a good idea to install the server counterparts as you may want to use the same machine as both client and server at some point or another. - -After installation, there is a couple of basic things that you need to take into account if you want to secure remote access to your SSH server. The following settings should be present in the `/etc/ssh/sshd_config` file. - -1. Change the port where the sshd daemon will listen on from 22 (the default value) to a high port (2000 or greater), but first make sure the chosen port is not being used. - -For example, let’s suppose you choose port 2500. Use [netstat][1] in order to check whether the chosen port is being used or not: - - # netstat -npltu | grep 2500 - -If netstat does not return anything, you can safely use port 2500 for sshd, and you should change the Port setting in the configuration file as follows: - - Port 2500 - -2. Only allow protocol 2: - -Protocol 2 - -3. Configure the authentication timeout to 2 minutes, do not allow root logins, and restrict to a minimum the list of users which are allowed to login via ssh: - - LoginGraceTime 2m - PermitRootLogin no - AllowUsers gacanepa - -4. If possible, use key-based instead of password authentication: - - PasswordAuthentication no - RSAAuthentication yes - PubkeyAuthentication yes - -This assumes that you have already created a key pair with your user name on your client machine and copied it to your server as explained here. - -- [Enable SSH Passwordless Login][2] - -### Configuring Networking and Name Resolution ### - -1. Every system administrator should be well acquainted with the following system-wide configuration files: - -- /etc/hosts is used to resolve names <---> IPs in small networks. - -Every line in the `/etc/hosts` file has the following structure: - - IP address - Hostname - FQDN - -For example, - - 192.168.0.10 laptop laptop.gabrielcanepa.com.ar - -2. `/etc/resolv.conf` specifies the IP addresses of DNS servers and the search domain, which is used for completing a given query name to a fully qualified domain name when no domain suffix is supplied. - -Under normal circumstances, you don’t need to edit this file as it is managed by the system. However, should you want to change DNS servers, be advised that you need to stick to the following structure in each line: - - nameserver - IP address - -For example, - - nameserver 8.8.8.8 - -3. 3. `/etc/host.conf` specifies the methods and the order by which hostnames are resolved within a network. In other words, tells the name resolver which services to use, and in what order. - -Although this file has several options, the most common and basic setup includes a line as follows: - - order bind,hosts - -Which indicates that the resolver should first look in the nameservers specified in `resolv.conf` and then to the `/etc/hosts` file for name resolution. - -4. `/etc/sysconfig/network` contains routing and global host information for all network interfaces. The following values may be used: - - NETWORKING=yes|no - HOSTNAME=value - -Where value should be the Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN). - - GATEWAY=XXX.XXX.XXX.XXX - -Where XXX.XXX.XXX.XXX is the IP address of the network’s gateway. - - GATEWAYDEV=value - -In a machine with multiple NICs, value is the gateway device, such as enp0s3. - -5. Files inside `/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts` (network adapters configuration files). - -Inside the directory mentioned previously, you will find several plain text files named. - - ifcfg-name - -Where name is the name of the NIC as returned by ip link show: - -![Check Network Link Status](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-IP-Address.png) - -Check Network Link Status - -For example: - -![Network Files](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Network-Files.png) - -Network Files - -Other than for the loopback interface, you can expect a similar configuration for your NICs. Note that some variables, if set, will override those present in `/etc/sysconfig/network` for this particular interface. Each line is commented for clarification in this article but in the actual file you should avoid comments: - - HWADDR=08:00:27:4E:59:37 # The MAC address of the NIC - TYPE=Ethernet # Type of connection - BOOTPROTO=static # This indicates that this NIC has been assigned a static IP. If this variable was set to dhcp, the NIC will be assigned an IP address by a DHCP server and thus the next two lines should not be present in that case. - IPADDR=192.168.0.18 - NETMASK=255.255.255.0 - GATEWAY=192.168.0.1 - NM_CONTROLLED=no # Should be added to the Ethernet interface to prevent NetworkManager from changing the file. - NAME=enp0s3 - UUID=14033805-98ef-4049-bc7b-d4bea76ed2eb - ONBOOT=yes # The operating system should bring up this NIC during boot - -### Setting Hostnames ### - -In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7, the hostnamectl command is used to both query and set the system’s hostname. - -To display the current hostname, type: - - # hostnamectl status - -![Check System hostname in CentOS 7](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-System-hostname.png) - -Check System Hostname - -To change the hostname, use - - # hostnamectl set-hostname [new hostname] - -For example, - - # hostnamectl set-hostname cinderella - -For the changes to take effect you will need to restart the hostnamed daemon (that way you will not have to log off and on again in order to apply the change): - - # systemctl restart systemd-hostnamed - -![Set System Hostname in CentOS 7](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Set-System-Hostname.png) - -Set System Hostname - -In addition, RHEL 7 also includes the nmcli utility that can be used for the same purpose. To display the hostname, run: - - # nmcli general hostname - -and to change it: - - # nmcli general hostname [new hostname] - -For example, - - # nmcli general hostname rhel7 - -![Set Hostname Using nmcli Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/nmcli-command.png) - -Set Hostname Using nmcli Command - -### Starting Network Services on Boot ### - -To wrap up, let us see how we can ensure that network services are started automatically on boot. In simple terms, this is done by creating symlinks to certain files specified in the [Install] section of the service configuration files. - -In the case of firewalld (/usr/lib/systemd/system/firewalld.service): - - [Install] - WantedBy=basic.target - Alias=dbus-org.fedoraproject.FirewallD1.service - -To enable the service: - - # systemctl enable firewalld - -On the other hand, disabling firewalld entitles removing the symlinks: - - # systemctl disable firewalld - -![Enable Service at System Boot](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Enable-Service-at-System-Boot.png) - -Enable Service at System Boot - -### Conclusion ### - -In this article we have summarized how to install and secure connections via SSH to a RHEL server, how to change its name, and finally how to ensure that network services are started on boot. If you notice that a certain service has failed to start properly, you can use systemctl status -l [service] and journalctl -xn to troubleshoot it. - -Feel free to let us know what you think about this article using the comment form below. Questions are also welcome. We look forward to hearing from you! - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-series-secure-ssh-set-hostname-enable-network-services-in-rhel-7/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-netstat-commands-for-linux-network-management/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/ssh-passwordless-login-using-ssh-keygen-in-5-easy-steps/ diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 09--Installing, Configuring and Securing a Web and FTP Server.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 09--Installing, Configuring and Securing a Web and FTP Server.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6a1e544de3..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 09--Installing, Configuring and Securing a Web and FTP Server.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,176 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA Series: Installing, Configuring and Securing a Web and FTP Server – Part 9 -================================================================================ -A web server (also known as a HTTP server) is a service that handles content (most commonly web pages, but other types of documents as well) over to a client in a network. - -A FTP server is one of the oldest and most commonly used resources (even to this day) to make files available to clients on a network in cases where no authentication is necessary since FTP uses username and password without encryption. - -The web server available in RHEL 7 is version 2.4 of the Apache HTTP Server. As for the FTP server, we will use the Very Secure Ftp Daemon (aka vsftpd) to establish connections secured by TLS. - -![Configuring and Securing Apache and FTP Server](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Install-Configure-Secure-Apache-FTP-Server.png) - -RHCSA: Installing, Configuring and Securing Apache and FTP – Part 9 - -In this article we will explain how to install, configure, and secure a web server and a FTP server in RHEL 7. - -### Installing Apache and FTP Server ### - -In this guide we will use a RHEL 7 server with a static IP address of 192.168.0.18/24. To install Apache and VSFTPD, run the following command: - - # yum update && yum install httpd vsftpd - -When the installation completes, both services will be disabled initially, so we need to start them manually for the time being and enable them to start automatically beginning with the next boot: - - # systemctl start httpd - # systemctl enable httpd - # systemctl start vsftpd - # systemctl enable vsftpd - -In addition, we have to open ports 80 and 21, where the web and ftp daemons are listening, respectively, in order to allow access to those services from the outside: - - # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-port=80/tcp --permanent - # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-service=ftp --permanent - # firewall-cmd --reload - -To confirm that the web server is working properly, fire up your browser and enter the IP of the server. You should see the test page: - -![Confirm Apache Web Server](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Confirm-Apache-Web-Server.png) - -Confirm Apache Web Server - -As for the ftp server, we will have to configure it further, which we will do in a minute, before confirming that it’s working as expected. - -### Configuring and Securing Apache Web Server ### - -The main configuration file for Apache is located in `/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf`, but it may rely on other files present inside `/etc/httpd/conf.d`. - -Although the default configuration should be sufficient for most cases, it’s a good idea to become familiar with all the available options as described in the [official documentation][1]. - -As always, make a backup copy of the main configuration file before editing it: - - # cp /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.$(date +%Y%m%d) - -Then open it with your preferred text editor and look for the following variables: - -- ServerRoot: the directory where the server’s configuration, error, and log files are kept. -- Listen: instructs Apache to listen on specific IP address and / or ports. -- Include: allows the inclusion of other configuration files, which must exist. Otherwise, the server will fail, as opposed to the IncludeOptional directive, which is silently ignored if the specified configuration files do not exist. -- User and Group: the name of the user/group to run the httpd service as. -- DocumentRoot: The directory out of which Apache will serve your documents. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations. -- ServerName: this directive sets the hostname (or IP address) and port that the server uses to identify itself. - -The first security measure will consist of creating a dedicated user and group (i.e. tecmint/tecmint) to run the web server as and changing the default port to a higher one (9000 in this case): - - ServerRoot "/etc/httpd" - Listen 192.168.0.18:9000 - User tecmint - Group tecmint - DocumentRoot "/var/www/html" - ServerName 192.168.0.18:9000 - -You can test the configuration file with. - - # apachectl configtest - -and if everything is OK, then restart the web server. - - # systemctl restart httpd - -and don’t forget to enable the new port (and disable the old one) in the firewall: - - # firewall-cmd --zone=public --remove-port=80/tcp --permanent - # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-port=9000/tcp --permanent - # firewall-cmd --reload - -Note that, due to SELinux policies, you can only use the ports returned by - - # semanage port -l | grep -w '^http_port_t' - -for the web server. - -If you want to use another port (i.e. TCP port 8100), you will have to add it to SELinux port context for the httpd service: - -# semanage port -a -t http_port_t -p tcp 8100 - -![Add Apache Port to SELinux Policies](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Add-Apache-Port-to-SELinux-Policies.png) - -Add Apache Port to SELinux Policies - -To further secure your Apache installation, follow these steps: - -1. The user Apache is running as should not have access to a shell: - - # usermod -s /sbin/nologin tecmint - -2. Disable directory listing in order to prevent the browser from displaying the contents of a directory if there is no index.html present in that directory. - -Edit `/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf` (and the configuration files for virtual hosts, if any) and make sure that the Options directive, both at the top and at Directory block levels, is set to None: - - Options None - -3. Hide information about the web server and the operating system in HTTP responses. Edit /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf as follows: - - ServerTokens Prod - ServerSignature Off - -Now you are ready to start serving content from your /var/www/html directory. - -### Configuring and Securing FTP Server ### - -As in the case of Apache, the main configuration file for Vsftpd `(/etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf)` is well commented and while the default configuration should suffice for most applications, you should become acquainted with the documentation and the man page `(man vsftpd.conf)` in order to operate the ftp server more efficiently (I can’t emphasize that enough!). - -In our case, these are the directives used: - - anonymous_enable=NO - local_enable=YES - write_enable=YES - local_umask=022 - dirmessage_enable=YES - xferlog_enable=YES - connect_from_port_20=YES - xferlog_std_format=YES - chroot_local_user=YES - allow_writeable_chroot=YES - listen=NO - listen_ipv6=YES - pam_service_name=vsftpd - userlist_enable=YES - tcp_wrappers=YES - -By using `chroot_local_user=YES`, local users will be (by default) placed in a chroot’ed jail in their home directory right after login. This means that local users will not be able to access any files outside their corresponding home directories. - -Finally, to allow ftp to read files in the user’s home directory, set the following SELinux boolean: - - # setsebool -P ftp_home_dir on - -You can now connect to the ftp server using a client such as Filezilla: - -![Check FTP Connection](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-FTP-Connection.png) - -Check FTP Connection - -Note that the `/var/log/xferlo`g log records downloads and uploads, which concur with the above directory listing: - -![Monitor FTP Download and Upload](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Monitor-FTP-Download-Upload.png) - -Monitor FTP Download and Upload - -Read Also: [Limit FTP Network Bandwidth Used by Applications in a Linux System with Trickle][2] - -### Summary ### - -In this tutorial we have explained how to set up a web and a ftp server. Due to the vastness of the subject, it is not possible to cover all the aspects of these topics (i.e. virtual web hosts). Thus, I recommend you also check other excellent articles in this website about [Apache][3]. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-series-install-and-secure-apache-web-server-and-ftp-in-rhel/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/manage-and-limit-downloadupload-bandwidth-with-trickle-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.google.com/cse?cx=partner-pub-2601749019656699:2173448976&ie=UTF-8&q=virtual+hosts&sa=Search&gws_rd=cr&ei=Dy9EVbb0IdHisASnroG4Bw#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=apache \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 10--Yum Package Management, Automating Tasks with Cron and Monitoring System Logs.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 10--Yum Package Management, Automating Tasks with Cron and Monitoring System Logs.md deleted file mode 100644 index 04c7d7a29e..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 10--Yum Package Management, Automating Tasks with Cron and Monitoring System Logs.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,197 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA Series: Yum Package Management, Automating Tasks with Cron and Monitoring System Logs – Part 10 -================================================================================ -In this article we will review how to install, update, and remove packages in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7. We will also cover how to automate tasks using cron, and will finish this guide explaining how to locate and interpret system logs files with the focus of teaching you why all of these are essential skills for every system administrator. - -![Yum Package Management Cron Jobs Log Monitoring Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Yum-Package-Management-Cron-Job-Log-Monitoring-Linux.jpg) - -RHCSA: Yum Package Management, Cron Job Scheduling and Log Monitoring – Part 10 - -### Managing Packages Via Yum ### - -To install a package along with all its dependencies that are not already installed, you will use: - - # yum -y install package_name(s) - -Where package_name(s) represent at least one real package name. - -For example, to install httpd and mlocate (in that order), type. - - # yum -y install httpd mlocate - -**Note**: That the letter y in the example above bypasses the confirmation prompts that yum presents before performing the actual download and installation of the requested programs. You can leave it out if you want. - -By default, yum will install the package with the architecture that matches the OS architecture, unless overridden by appending the package architecture to its name. - -For example, on a 64 bit system, yum install package will install the x86_64 version of package, whereas yum install package.x86 (if available) will install the 32-bit one. - -There will be times when you want to install a package but don’t know its exact name. The search all or search options can search the currently enabled repositories for a certain keyword in the package name and/or in its description as well, respectively. - -For example, - - # yum search log - -will search the installed repositories for packages with the word log in their names and summaries, whereas - - # yum search all log - -will look for the same keyword in the package description and url fields as well. - -Once the search returns a package listing, you may want to display further information about some of them before installing. That is when the info option will come in handy: - - # yum info logwatch - -![Search Package Information](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Search-Package-Information.png) - -Search Package Information - -You can regularly check for updates with the following command: - - # yum check-update - -The above command will return all the installed packages for which an update is available. In the example shown in the image below, only rhel-7-server-rpms has an update available: - -![Check For Package Updates](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-For-Updates.png) - -Check For Package Updates - -You can then update that package alone with, - - # yum update rhel-7-server-rpms - -If there are several packages that can be updated, yum update will update all of them at once. - -Now what happens when you know the name of an executable, such as ps2pdf, but don’t know which package provides it? You can find out with `yum whatprovides “*/[executable]”`: - - # yum whatprovides “*/ps2pdf” - -![Find Package Belongs to Which Package](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Find-Package-Information.png) - -Find Package Belongs to Which Package - -Now, when it comes to removing a package, you can do so with yum remove package. Easy, huh? This goes to show that yum is a complete and powerful package manager. - - # yum remove httpd - -Read Also: [20 Yum Commands to Manage RHEL 7 Package Management][1] - -### Good Old Plain RPM ### - -RPM (aka RPM Package Manager, or originally RedHat Package Manager) can also be used to install or update packages when they come in form of standalone `.rpm` packages. - -It is often utilized with the `-Uvh` flags to indicate that it should install the package if it’s not already present or attempt to update it if it’s installed `(-U)`, producing a verbose output `(-v)` and a progress bar with hash marks `(-h)` while the operation is being performed. For example, - - # rpm -Uvh package.rpm - -Another typical use of rpm is to produce a list of currently installed packages with code>rpm -qa (short for query all): - - # rpm -qa - -![Query All RPM Packages](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Query-All-RPM-Packages.png) - -Query All RPM Packages - -Read Also: [20 RPM Commands to Install Packages in RHEL 7][2] - -### Scheduling Tasks using Cron ### - -Linux and other Unix-like operating systems include a tool called cron that allows you to schedule tasks (i.e. commands or shell scripts) to run on a periodic basis. Cron checks every minute the /var/spool/cron directory for files which are named after accounts in /etc/passwd. - -When executing commands, any output is mailed to the owner of the crontab (or to the user specified in the MAILTO environment variable in the /etc/crontab, if it exists). - -Crontab files (which are created by typing crontab -e and pressing Enter) have the following format: - -![Crontab Entries](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Crontab-Format.png) - -Crontab Entries - -Thus, if we want to update the local file database (which is used by locate to find files by name or pattern) every second day of the month at 2:15 am, we need to add the following crontab entry: - - 15 02 2 * * /bin/updatedb - -The above crontab entry reads, “Run /bin/updatedb on the second day of the month, every month of the year, regardless of the day of the week, at 2:15 am”. As I’m sure you already guessed, the star symbol is used as a wildcard character. - -After adding a cron job, you can see that a file named root was added inside /var/spool/cron, as we mentioned earlier. That file lists all the tasks that the crond daemon should run: - - # ls -l /var/spool/cron - -![Check All Cron Jobs](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-All-Cron-Jobs.png) - -Check All Cron Jobs - -In the above image, the current user’s crontab can be displayed either using cat /var/spool/cron/root or, - - # crontab -l - -If you need to run a task on a more fine-grained basis (for example, twice a day or three times each month), cron can also help you to do that. - -For example, to run /my/script on the 1st and 15th of each month and send any output to /dev/null, you can add two crontab entries as follows: - - 01 00 1 * * /myscript > /dev/null 2>&1 - 01 00 15 * * /my/script > /dev/null 2>&1 - -But in order for the task to be easier to maintain, you can combine both entries into one: - - 01 00 1,15 * * /my/script > /dev/null 2>&1 - -Following the previous example, we can run /my/other/script at 1:30 am on the first day of the month every three months: - - 30 01 1 1,4,7,10 * /my/other/script > /dev/null 2>&1 - -But when you have to repeat a certain task every “x” minutes, hours, days, or months, you can divide the right position by the desired frequency. The following crontab entry has the exact same meaning as the previous one: - - 30 01 1 */3 * /my/other/script > /dev/null 2>&1 - -Or perhaps you need to run a certain job on a fixed frequency or after the system boots, for example. You can use one of the following string instead of the five fields to indicate the exact time when you want your job to run: - - @reboot Run when the system boots. - @yearly Run once a year, same as 00 00 1 1 *. - @monthly Run once a month, same as 00 00 1 * *. - @weekly Run once a week, same as 00 00 * * 0. - @daily Run once a day, same as 00 00 * * *. - @hourly Run once an hour, same as 00 * * * *. - -Read Also: [11 Commands to Schedule Cron Jobs in RHEL 7][3] - -### Locating and Checking Logs ### - -System logs are located (and rotated) inside the /var/log directory. According to the Linux Filesystem Hierarchy Standard, this directory contains miscellaneous log files, which are written to it or an appropriate subdirectory (such as audit, httpd, or samba in the image below) by the corresponding daemons during system operation: - - # ls /var/log - -![Linux Log Files Location](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Linux-Log-Files.png) - -Linux Log Files Location - -Other interesting logs are [dmesg][4] (contains all messages from kernel ring buffer), secure (logs connection attempts that require user authentication), messages (system-wide messages) and wtmp (records of all user logins and logouts). - -Logs are very important in that they allow you to have a glimpse of what is going on at all times in your system, and what has happened in the past. They represent a priceless tool to troubleshoot and monitor a Linux server, and thus are often used with the `tail -f command` to display events, in real time, as they happen and are recorded in a log. - -For example, if you want to display kernel-related events, type the following command: - - # tail -f /var/log/dmesg - -Same if you want to view access to your web server: - - # tail -f /var/log/httpd/access.log - -### Summary ### - -If you know how to efficiently manage packages, schedule tasks, and where to look for information about the current and past operation of your system you can rest assure that you will not run into surprises very often. I hope this article has helped you learn or refresh your knowledge about these basic skills. - -Don’t hesitate to drop us a line using the contact form below if you have any questions or comments. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/yum-package-management-cron-job-scheduling-monitoring-linux-logs/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-linux-yum-yellowdog-updater-modified-commands-for-package-mangement/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-practical-examples-of-rpm-commands-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/11-cron-scheduling-task-examples-in-linux/ -[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/dmesg-commands/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 11--Firewall Essentials and Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 11--Firewall Essentials and Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables.md deleted file mode 100644 index fd27f4c6fc..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 11--Firewall Essentials and Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,191 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA Series: Firewall Essentials and Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables – Part 11 -================================================================================ -In simple words, a firewall is a security system that controls the incoming and outgoing traffic in a network based on a set of predefined rules (such as the packet destination / source or type of traffic, for example). - -![Control Network Traffic with FirewallD and Iptables](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Control-Network-Traffic-Using-Firewall.png) - -RHCSA: Control Network Traffic with FirewallD and Iptables – Part 11 - -In this article we will review the basics of firewalld, the default dynamic firewall daemon in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7, and iptables service, the legacy firewall service for Linux, with which most system and network administrators are well acquainted, and which is also available in RHEL 7. - -### A Comparison Between FirewallD and Iptables ### - -Under the hood, both firewalld and the iptables service talk to the netfilter framework in the kernel through the same interface, not surprisingly, the iptables command. However, as opposed to the iptables service, firewalld can change the settings during normal system operation without existing connections being lost. - -Firewalld should be installed by default in your RHEL system, though it may not be running. You can verify with the following commands (firewall-config is the user interface configuration tool): - - # yum info firewalld firewall-config - -![Check FirewallD Information](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-FirewallD-Information.png) - -Check FirewallD Information - -and, - - # systemctl status -l firewalld.service - -![Check FirewallD Status](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-FirewallD-Status.png) - -Check FirewallD Status - -On the other hand, the iptables service is not included by default, but can be installed through. - - # yum update && yum install iptables-services - -Both daemons can be started and enabled to start on boot with the usual systemd commands: - - # systemctl start firewalld.service | iptables-service.service - # systemctl enable firewalld.service | iptables-service.service - -Read Also: [Useful Commands to Manage Systemd Services][1] - -As for the configuration files, the iptables service uses `/etc/sysconfig/iptables` (which will not exist if the package is not installed in your system). On a RHEL 7 box used as a cluster node, this file looks as follows: - -![Iptables Firewall Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Iptables-Rules.png) - -Iptables Firewall Configuration - -Whereas firewalld store its configuration across two directories, `/usr/lib/firewalld` and `/etc/firewalld`: - - # ls /usr/lib/firewalld /etc/firewalld - -![FirewallD Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Firewalld-configuration.png) - -FirewallD Configuration - -We will examine these configuration files further later in this article, after we add a few rules here and there. By now it will suffice to remind you that you can always find more information about both tools with. - - # man firewalld.conf - # man firewall-cmd - # man iptables - -Other than that, remember to take a look at [Reviewing Essential Commands & System Documentation – Part 1][2] of the current series, where I described several sources where you can get information about the packages installed on your RHEL 7 system. - -### Using Iptables to Control Network Traffic ### - -You may want to refer to [Configure Iptables Firewall – Part 8][3] of the Linux Foundation Certified Engineer (LFCE) series to refresh your memory about iptables internals before proceeding further. Thus, we will be able to jump in right into the examples. - -**Example 1: Allowing both incoming and outgoing web traffic** - -TCP ports 80 and 443 are the default ports used by the Apache web server to handle normal (HTTP) and secure (HTTPS) web traffic. You can allow incoming and outgoing web traffic through both ports on the enp0s3 interface as follows: - - # iptables -A INPUT -i enp0s3 -p tcp --dport 80 -m state --state NEW,ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT - # iptables -A OUTPUT -o enp0s3 -p tcp --sport 80 -m state --state ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT - # iptables -A INPUT -i enp0s3 -p tcp --dport 443 -m state --state NEW,ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT - # iptables -A OUTPUT -o enp0s3 -p tcp --sport 443 -m state --state ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT - -**Example 2: Block all (or some) incoming connections from a specific network** - -There may be times when you need to block all (or some) type of traffic originating from a specific network, say 192.168.1.0/24 for example: - - # iptables -I INPUT -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j DROP - -will drop all packages coming from the 192.168.1.0/24 network, whereas, - - # iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.1.0/24 --dport 22 -j ACCEPT - -will only allow incoming traffic through port 22. - -**Example 3: Redirect incoming traffic to another destination** - -If you use your RHEL 7 box not only as a software firewall, but also as the actual hardware-based one, so that it sits between two distinct networks, IP forwarding must have been already enabled in your system. If not, you need to edit `/etc/sysctl.conf` and set the value of net.ipv4.ip_forward to 1, as follows: - - net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1 - -then save the change, close your text editor and finally run the following command to apply the change: - - # sysctl -p /etc/sysctl.conf - -For example, you may have a printer installed at an internal box with IP 192.168.0.10, with the CUPS service listening on port 631 (both on the print server and on your firewall). In order to forward print requests from clients on the other side of the firewall, you should add the following iptables rule: - - # iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i enp0s3 -p tcp --dport 631 -j DNAT --to 192.168.0.10:631 - -Please keep in mind that iptables reads its rules sequentially, so make sure the default policies or later rules do not override those outlined in the examples above. - -### Getting Started with FirewallD ### - -One of the changes introduced with firewalld are zones. This concept allows to separate networks into different zones level of trust the user has decided to place on the devices and traffic within that network. - -To list the active zones: - - # firewall-cmd --get-active-zones - -In the example below, the public zone is active, and the enp0s3 interface has been assigned to it automatically. To view all the information about a particular zone: - - # firewall-cmd --zone=public --list-all - -![List all FirewallD Zones](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/View-FirewallD-Zones.png) - -List all FirewallD Zones - -Since you can read more about zones in the [RHEL 7 Security guide][4], we will only list some specific examples here. - -**Example 4: Allowing services through the firewall** - -To get a list of the supported services, use. - - # firewall-cmd --get-services - -![List All Supported Services](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/List-All-Supported-Services.png) - -List All Supported Services - -To allow http and https web traffic through the firewall, effective immediately and on subsequent boots: - - # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --add-service=http - # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --permanent --add-service=http - # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --add-service=https - # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --permanent --add-service=https - # firewall-cmd --reload - -If code>–zone is omitted, the default zone (you can check with firewall-cmd –get-default-zone) is used. - -To remove the rule, replace the word add with remove in the above commands. - -**Example 5: IP / Port forwarding** - -First off, you need to find out if masquerading is enabled for the desired zone: - - # firewall-cmd --zone=MyZone --query-masquerade - -In the image below, we can see that masquerading is enabled for the external zone, but not for public: - -![Check Masquerading Status in Firewalld](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-masquerading.png) - -Check Masquerading Status - -You can either enable masquerading for public: - - # firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-masquerade - -or use masquerading in external. Here’s what we would do to replicate Example 3 with firewalld: - - # firewall-cmd --zone=external --add-forward-port=port=631:proto=tcp:toport=631:toaddr=192.168.0.10 - -And don’t forget to reload the firewall. - -You can find further examples on [Part 9][5] of the RHCSA series, where we explained how to allow or disable the ports that are usually used by a web server and a ftp server, and how to change the corresponding rule when the default port for those services are changed. In addition, you may want to refer to the firewalld wiki for further examples. - -Read Also: [Useful FirewallD Examples to Configure Firewall in RHEL 7][6] - -### Conclusion ### - -In this article we have explained what a firewall is, what are the available services to implement one in RHEL 7, and provided a few examples that can help you get started with this task. If you have any comments, suggestions, or questions, feel free to let us know using the form below. Thank you in advance! - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/firewalld-vs-iptables-and-control-network-traffic-in-firewall/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/manage-services-using-systemd-and-systemctl-in-linux/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-reviewing-essential-commands-system-documentation/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/configure-iptables-firewall/ -[4]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/Security_Guide/sec-Using_Firewalls.html -[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-series-install-and-secure-apache-web-server-and-ftp-in-rhel/ -[6]:http://www.tecmint.com/firewalld-rules-for-centos-7/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 12--Automate RHEL 7 Installations Using 'Kickstart'.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 12--Automate RHEL 7 Installations Using 'Kickstart'.md deleted file mode 100644 index a4365e311e..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 12--Automate RHEL 7 Installations Using 'Kickstart'.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,142 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA Series: Automate RHEL 7 Installations Using ‘Kickstart’ – Part 12 -================================================================================ -Linux servers are rarely standalone boxes. Whether it is in a datacenter or in a lab environment, chances are that you have had to install several machines that will interact one with another in some way. If you multiply the time that it takes to install Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7 manually on a single server by the number of boxes that you need to set up, this can lead to a rather lengthy effort that can be avoided through the use of an unattended installation tool known as kickstart. - -In this article we will show what you need to use kickstart utility so that you can forget about babysitting servers during the installation process. - -![Automatic Kickstart Installation of RHEL 7](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Automatic-Kickstart-Installation-of-RHEL-7.jpg) - -RHCSA: Automatic Kickstart Installation of RHEL 7 - -#### Introducing Kickstart and Automated Installations #### - -Kickstart is an automated installation method used primarily by Red Hat Enterprise Linux (and other Fedora spin-offs, such as CentOS, Oracle Linux, etc.) to execute unattended operating system installation and configuration. Thus, kickstart installations allow system administrators to have identical systems, as far as installed package groups and system configuration are concerned, while sparing them the hassle of having to manually install each of them. - -### Preparing for a Kickstart Installation ### - -To perform a kickstart installation, we need to follow these steps: - -1. Create a Kickstart file, a plain text file with several predefined configuration options. - -2. Make the Kickstart file available on removable media, a hard drive or a network location. The client will use the rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-boot.iso file, whereas you will need to make the full ISO image (rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso) available from a network resource, such as a HTTP of FTP server (in our present case, we will use another RHEL 7 box with IP 192.168.0.18). - -3. Start the Kickstart installation - -To create a kickstart file, login to your Red Hat Customer Portal account, and use the [Kickstart configuration tool][1] to choose the desired installation options. Read each one of them carefully before scrolling down, and choose what best fits your needs: - -![Kickstart Configuration Tool](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Kickstart-Configuration-Tool.png) - -Kickstart Configuration Tool - -If you specify that the installation should be performed either through HTTP, FTP, or NFS, make sure the firewall on the server allows those services. - -Although you can use the Red Hat online tool to create a kickstart file, you can also create it manually using the following lines as reference. You will notice, for example, that the installation process will be in English, using the latin american keyboard layout and the America/Argentina/San_Luis time zone: - - lang en_US - keyboard la-latin1 - timezone America/Argentina/San_Luis --isUtc - rootpw $1$5sOtDvRo$In4KTmX7OmcOW9HUvWtfn0 --iscrypted - #platform x86, AMD64, or Intel EM64T - text - url --url=http://192.168.0.18//kickstart/media - bootloader --location=mbr --append="rhgb quiet crashkernel=auto" - zerombr - clearpart --all --initlabel - autopart - auth --passalgo=sha512 --useshadow - selinux --enforcing - firewall --enabled - firstboot --disable - %packages - @base - @backup-server - @print-server - %end - -In the online configuration tool, use 192.168.0.18 for HTTP Server and `/kickstart/tecmint.bin` for HTTP Directory in the Installation section after selecting HTTP as installation source. Finally, click the Download button at the right top corner to download the kickstart file. - -In the kickstart sample file above, you need to pay careful attention to. - - url --url=http://192.168.0.18//kickstart/media - -That directory is where you need to extract the contents of the DVD or ISO installation media. Before doing that, we will mount the ISO installation file in /media/rhel as a loop device: - - # mount -o loop /var/www/html/kickstart/rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso /media/rhel - -![Mount RHEL ISO Image](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Mount-RHEL-ISO-Image.png) - -Mount RHEL ISO Image - -Next, copy all the contents of /media/rhel to /var/www/html/kickstart/media: - - # cp -R /media/rhel /var/www/html/kickstart/media - -When you’re done, the directory listing and disk usage of /var/www/html/kickstart/media should look as follows: - -![Kickstart Media Files](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Kickstart-media-Files.png) - -Kickstart Media Files - -Now we’re ready to kick off the kickstart installation. - -Regardless of how you choose to create the kickstart file, it’s always a good idea to check its syntax before proceeding with the installation. To do that, install the pykickstart package. - - # yum update && yum install pykickstart - -And then use the ksvalidator utility to check the file: - - # ksvalidator /var/www/html/kickstart/tecmint.bin - -If the syntax is correct, you will not get any output, whereas if there’s an error in the file, you will get a warning notice indicating the line where the syntax is not correct or unknown. - -### Performing a Kickstart Installation ### - -To start, boot your client using the rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-boot.iso file. When the initial screen appears, select Install Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7.0 and press the Tab key to append the following stanza and press Enter: - - # inst.ks=http://192.168.0.18/kickstart/tecmint.bin - -![RHEL Kickstart Installation](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/RHEL-Kickstart-Installation.png) - -RHEL Kickstart Installation - -Where tecmint.bin is the kickstart file created earlier. - -When you press Enter, the automated installation will begin, and you will see the list of packages that are being installed (the number and the names will differ depending on your choice of programs and package groups): - -![Automatic Kickstart Installation of RHEL 7](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Kickstart-Automatic-Installation.png) - -Automatic Kickstart Installation of RHEL 7 - -When the automated process ends, you will be prompted to remove the installation media and then you will be able to boot into your newly installed system: - -![RHEL 7 Boot Screen](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/RHEL-7.png) - -RHEL 7 Boot Screen - -Although you can create your kickstart files manually as we mentioned earlier, you should consider using the recommended approach whenever possible. You can either use the online configuration tool, or the anaconda-ks.cfg file that is created by the installation process in root’s home directory. - -This file actually is a kickstart file, so you may want to install the first box manually with all the desired options (maybe modify the logical volumes layout or the file system on top of each one) and then use the resulting anaconda-ks.cfg file to automate the installation of the rest. - -In addition, using the online configuration tool or the anaconda-ks.cfg file to guide future installations will allow you to perform them using an encrypted root password out-of-the-box. - -### Conclusion ### - -Now that you know how to create kickstart files and how to use them to automate the installation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7 servers, you can forget about babysitting the installation process. This will give you time to do other things, or perhaps some leisure time if you’re lucky. - -Either way, let us know what you think about this article using the form below. Questions are also welcome! - -Read Also: [Automated Installations of Multiple RHEL/CentOS 7 Distributions using PXE and Kickstart][2] - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/automatic-rhel-installations-using-kickstart/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:https://access.redhat.com/labs/kickstartconfig/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/multiple-centos-installations-using-kickstart/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 13--Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux in RHEL 7.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 13--Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux in RHEL 7.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1a0d08df8f..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 13--Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux in RHEL 7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,176 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA Series: Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux in RHEL 7 – Part 13 -================================================================================ -During this series we have explored in detail at least two access control methods: standard ugo/rwx permissions ([Manage Users and Groups – Part 3][1]) and access control lists ([Configure ACL’s on File Systems – Part 7][2]). - -![RHCSA Exam: SELinux Essentials and Control FileSystem Access](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/SELinux-Control-File-System-Access.png) - -RHCSA Exam: SELinux Essentials and Control FileSystem Access - -Although necessary as first level permissions and access control mechanisms, they have some limitations that are addressed by Security Enhanced Linux (aka SELinux for short). - -One of such limitations is that a user can expose a file or directory to a security breach through a poorly elaborated chmod command and thus cause an unexpected propagation of access rights. As a result, any process started by that user can do as it pleases with the files owned by the user, where finally a malicious or otherwise compromised software can achieve root-level access to the entire system. - -With those limitations in mind, the United States National Security Agency (NSA) first devised SELinux, a flexible mandatory access control method, to restrict the ability of processes to access or perform other operations on system objects (such as files, directories, network ports, etc) to the least permission model, which can be modified later as needed. In few words, each element of the system is given only the access required to function. - -In RHEL 7, SELinux is incorporated into the kernel itself and is enabled in Enforcing mode by default. In this article we will explain briefly the basic concepts associated with SELinux and its operation. - -### SELinux Modes ### - -SELinux can operate in three different ways: - -- Enforcing: SELinux denies access based on SELinux policy rules, a set of guidelines that control the security engine. -- Permissive: SELinux does not deny access, but denials are logged for actions that would have been denied if running in enforcing mode. -- Disabled (self-explanatory). - -The `getenforce` command displays the current mode of SELinux, whereas `setenforce` (followed by a 1 or a 0) is used to change the mode to Enforcing or Permissive, respectively, during the current session only. - -In order to achieve persistence across logouts and reboots, you will need to edit the `/etc/selinux/config` file and set the SELINUX variable to either enforcing, permissive, or disabled: - - # getenforce - # setenforce 0 - # getenforce - # setenforce 1 - # getenforce - # cat /etc/selinux/config - -![Set SELinux Mode](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Set-SELinux-Mode.png) - -Set SELinux Mode - -Typically you will use setenforce to toggle between SELinux modes (enforcing to permissive and back) as a first troubleshooting step. If SELinux is currently set to enforcing while you’re experiencing a certain problem, and the same goes away when you set it to permissive, you can be confident you’re looking at a SELinux permissions issue. - -### SELinux Contexts ### - -A SELinux context consists of an access control environment where decisions are made based on SELinux user, role, and type (and optionally a level): - -- A SELinux user complements a regular Linux user account by mapping it to a SELinux user account, which in turn is used in the SELinux context for processes in that session, in order to explicitly define their allowed roles and levels. -- The concept of role acts as an intermediary between domains and SELinux users in that it defines which process domains and file types can be accessed. This will shield your system against vulnerability to privilege escalation attacks. -- A type defines an SELinux file type or an SELinux process domain. Under normal circumstances, processes are prevented from accessing files that other processes use, and and from accessing other processes, thus access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it. - -Let’s see how all of that works through the following examples. - -**EXAMPLE 1: Changing the default port for the sshd daemon** - -In [Securing SSH – Part 8][3] we explained that changing the default port where sshd listens on is one of the first security measures to secure your server against external attacks. Let’s edit the `/etc/ssh/sshd_config` file and set the port to 9999: - - Port 9999 - -Save the changes, and restart sshd: - - # systemctl restart sshd - # systemctl status sshd - -![Change SSH Port](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Change-SSH-Port.png) - -Restart SSH Service - -As you can see, sshd has failed to start. But what happened? - -A quick inspection of `/var/log/audit/audit.log` indicates that sshd has been denied permissions to start on port 9999 (SELinux log messages include the word “AVC” so that they might be easily identified from other messages) because that is a reserved port for the JBoss Management service: - - # cat /var/log/audit/audit.log | grep AVC | tail -1 - -![Inspect SSH Logs](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Inspect-SSH-Logs.png) - -Inspect SSH Logs - -At this point you could disable SELinux (but don’t!) as explained earlier and try to start sshd again, and it should work. However, the semanage utility can tell us what we need to change in order for us to be able to start sshd in whatever port we choose without issues. - -Run, - - # semanage port -l | grep ssh - -to get a list of the ports where SELinux allows sshd to listen on. - -![Semanage Tool](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/SELinux-Permission.png) - -Semanage Tool - -So let’s change the port in /etc/ssh/sshd_config to Port 9998, add the port to the ssh_port_t context, and then restart the service: - - # semanage port -a -t ssh_port_t -p tcp 9998 - # systemctl restart sshd - # systemctl is-active sshd - -![Semanage Add Port](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Semenage-Add-Port.png) - -Semanage Add Port - -As you can see, the service was started successfully this time. This example illustrates the fact that SELinux controls the TCP port number to its own port type internal definitions. - -**EXAMPLE 2: Allowing httpd to send access sendmail** - -This is an example of SELinux managing a process accessing another process. If you were to implement mod_security and mod_evasive along with Apache in your RHEL 7 server, you need to allow httpd to access sendmail in order to send a mail notification in the wake of a (D)DoS attack. In the following command, omit the -P flag if you do not want the change to be persistent across reboots. - - # semanage boolean -1 | grep httpd_can_sendmail - # setsebool -P httpd_can_sendmail 1 - # semanage boolean -1 | grep httpd_can_sendmail - -![Allow Apache to Send Mails](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Allow-Apache-to-Send-Mails.png) - -Allow Apache to Send Mails - -As you can tell from the above example, SELinux boolean settings (or just booleans) are true / false rules embedded into SELinux policies. You can list all the booleans with `semanage boolean -l`, and alternatively pipe it to grep in order to filter the output. - -**EXAMPLE 3: Serving a static site from a directory other than the default one** - -Suppose you are serving a static website using a different directory than the default one (`/var/www/html`), say /websites (this could be the case if you’re storing your web files in a shared network drive, for example, and need to mount it at /websites). - -a). Create an index.html file inside /websites with the following contents: - - -

SELinux test

- - -If you do, - - # ls -lZ /websites/index.html - -you will see that the index.html file has been labeled with the default_t SELinux type, which Apache can’t access: - -![Check SELinux File Permission](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Check-File-Permssion.png) - -Check SELinux File Permission - -b). Change the DocumentRoot directive in `/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf` to /websites and don’t forget to update the corresponding Directory block. Then, restart Apache. - -c). Browse to `http://`, and you should get a 503 Forbidden HTTP response. - -d). Next, change the label of /websites, recursively, to the httpd_sys_content_t type in order to grant Apache read-only access to that directory and its contents: - - # semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t "/websites(/.*)?" - -e). Finally, apply the SELinux policy created in d): - - # restorecon -R -v /websites - -Now restart Apache and browse to `http://` again and you will see the html file displayed correctly: - -![Verify Apache Page](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/08part13.png) - -Verify Apache Page - -### Summary ### - -In this article we have gone through the basics of SELinux. Note that due to the vastness of the subject, a full detailed explanation is not possible in a single article, but we believe that the principles outlined in this guide will help you to move on to more advanced topics should you wish to do so. - -If I may, let me recommend two essential resources to start with: the [NSA SELinux page][4] and the [RHEL 7 SELinux User’s and Administrator’s][5] guide. - -Don’t hesitate to let us know if you have any questions or comments. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/selinux-essentials-and-control-filesystem-access/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-manage-users-and-groups -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-configure-acls-and-mount-nfs-samba-shares/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-series-secure-ssh-set-hostname-enable-network-services-in-rhel-7/ -[4]:https://www.nsa.gov/research/selinux/index.shtml -[5]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/SELinux_Users_and_Administrators_Guide/part_I-SELinux.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 14--Setting Up LDAP-based Authentication in RHEL 7.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 14--Setting Up LDAP-based Authentication in RHEL 7.md deleted file mode 100644 index 36bf319b19..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 14--Setting Up LDAP-based Authentication in RHEL 7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,275 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA Series: Setting Up LDAP-based Authentication in RHEL 7 – Part 14 -================================================================================ -We will begin this article by outlining some LDAP basics (what it is, where it is used and why) and show how to set up a LDAP server and configure a client to authenticate against it using Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7 systems. - -![Setup LDAP Server and Client Authentication](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/setup-ldap-server-and-configure-client-authentication.png) - -RHCSA Series: Setup LDAP Server and Client Authentication – Part 14 - -As we will see, there are several other possible application scenarios, but in this guide we will focus entirely on LDAP-based authentication. In addition, please keep in mind that due to the vastness of the subject, we will only cover its basics here, but you can refer to the documentation outlined in the summary for more in-depth details. - -For the same reason, you will note that I have decided to leave out several references to man pages of LDAP tools for the sake of brevity, but the corresponding explanations are at a fingertip’s distance (man ldapadd, for example). - -That said, let’s get started. - -**Our Testing Environment** - -Our test environment consists of two RHEL 7 boxes: - - Server: 192.168.0.18. FQDN: rhel7.mydomain.com - Client: 192.168.0.20. FQDN: ldapclient.mydomain.com - -If you want, you can use the machine installed in [Part 12: Automate RHEL 7 installations][1] using Kickstart as client. - -#### What is LDAP? #### - -LDAP stands for Lightweight Directory Access Protocol and consists in a set of protocols that allows a client to access, over a network, centrally stored information (such as a directory of login shells, absolute paths to home directories, and other typical system user information, for example) that should be accessible from different places or available to a large number of end users (another example would be a directory of home addresses and phone numbers of all employees in a company). - -Keeping such (and more) information centrally means it can be more easily maintained and accessed by everyone who has been granted permissions to use it. - -The following diagram offers a simplified diagram of LDAP, and is described below in greater detail: - -![LDAP Diagram](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Diagram.png) - -LDAP Diagram - -Explanation of above diagram in detail. - -- An entry in a LDAP directory represents a single unit or information and is uniquely identified by what is called a Distinguished Name. -- An attribute is a piece of information associated with an entry (for example, addresses, available contact phone numbers, and email addresses). -- Each attribute is assigned one or more values consisting in a space-separated list. A value that is unique per entry is called a Relative Distinguished Name. - -That being said, let’s proceed with the server and client installations. - -### Installing and Configuring a LDAP Server and Client ### - -In RHEL 7, LDAP is implemented by OpenLDAP. To install the server and client, use the following commands, respectively: - - # yum update && yum install openldap openldap-clients openldap-servers - # yum update && yum install openldap openldap-clients nss-pam-ldapd - -Once the installation is complete, there are some things we look at. The following steps should be performed on the server alone, unless explicitly noted: - -**1. Make sure SELinux does not get in the way by enabling the following booleans persistently, both on the server and the client:** - - # setsebool -P allow_ypbind=0 authlogin_nsswitch_use_ldap=0 - -Where allow_ypbind is required for LDAP-based authentication, and authlogin_nsswitch_use_ldap may be needed by some applications. - -**2. Enable and start the service:** - - # systemctl enable slapd.service - # systemctl start slapd.service - -Keep in mind that you can also disable, restart, or stop the service with [systemctl][2] as well: - - # systemctl disable slapd.service - # systemctl restart slapd.service - # systemctl stop slapd.service - -**3. Since the slapd service runs as the ldap user (which you can verify with ps -e -o pid,uname,comm | grep slapd), such user should own the /var/lib/ldap directory in order for the server to be able to modify entries created by administrative tools that can only be run as root (more on this in a minute).** - -Before changing the ownership of this directory recursively, copy the sample database configuration file for slapd into it: - - # cp /usr/share/openldap-servers/DB_CONFIG.example /var/lib/ldap/DB_CONFIG - # chown -R ldap:ldap /var/lib/ldap - -**4. Set up an OpenLDAP administrative user and assign a password:** - - # slappasswd - -as shown in the next image: - -![Set LDAP Admin Password](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Set-LDAP-Admin-Password.png) - -Set LDAP Admin Password - -and create an LDIF file (ldaprootpasswd.ldif) with the following contents: - - dn: olcDatabase={0}config,cn=config - changetype: modify - add: olcRootPW - olcRootPW: {SSHA}PASSWORD - -where: - -- PASSWORD is the hashed string obtained earlier. -- cn=config indicates global config options. -- olcDatabase indicates a specific database instance name and can be typically found inside /etc/openldap/slapd.d/cn=config. - -Referring to the theoretical background provided earlier, the `ldaprootpasswd.ldif` file will add an entry to the LDAP directory. In that entry, each line represents an attribute: value pair (where dn, changetype, add, and olcRootPW are the attributes and the strings to the right of each colon are their corresponding values). - -You may want to keep this in mind as we proceed further, and please note that we are using the same Common Names `(cn=)` throughout the rest of this article, where each step depends on the previous one. - -**5. Now, add the corresponding LDAP entry by specifying the URI referring to the ldap server, where only the protocol/host/port fields are allowed.** - - # ldapadd -H ldapi:/// -f ldaprootpasswd.ldif - -The output should be similar to: - -![LDAP Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Configuration.png) - -LDAP Configuration - -and import some basic LDAP definitions from the `/etc/openldap/schema` directory: - - # for def in cosine.ldif nis.ldif inetorgperson.ldif; do ldapadd -H ldapi:/// -f /etc/openldap/schema/$def; done - -![LDAP Definitions](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Definitions.png) - -LDAP Definitions - -**6. Have LDAP use your domain in its database.** - -Create another LDIF file, which we will call `ldapdomain.ldif`, with the following contents, replacing your domain (in the Domain Component dc=) and password as appropriate: - - dn: olcDatabase={1}monitor,cn=config - changetype: modify - replace: olcAccess - olcAccess: {0}to * by dn.base="gidNumber=0+uidNumber=0,cn=peercred,cn=external,cn=auth" - read by dn.base="cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" read by * none - - dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config - changetype: modify - replace: olcSuffix - olcSuffix: dc=mydomain,dc=com - - dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config - changetype: modify - replace: olcRootDN - olcRootDN: cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com - - dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config - changetype: modify - add: olcRootPW - olcRootPW: {SSHA}PASSWORD - - dn: olcDatabase={2}hdb,cn=config - changetype: modify - add: olcAccess - olcAccess: {0}to attrs=userPassword,shadowLastChange by - dn="cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" write by anonymous auth by self write by * none - olcAccess: {1}to dn.base="" by * read - olcAccess: {2}to * by dn="cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" write by * read - -Then load it as follows: - - # ldapmodify -H ldapi:/// -f ldapdomain.ldif - -![LDAP Domain Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Domain-Configuration.png) - -LDAP Domain Configuration - -**7. Now it’s time to add some entries to our LDAP directory. Attributes and values are separated by a colon `(:)` in the following file, which we’ll name `baseldapdomain.ldif`:** - - dn: dc=mydomain,dc=com - objectClass: top - objectClass: dcObject - objectclass: organization - o: mydomain com - dc: mydomain - - dn: cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com - objectClass: organizationalRole - cn: Manager - description: Directory Manager - - dn: ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com - objectClass: organizationalUnit - ou: People - - dn: ou=Group,dc=mydomain,dc=com - objectClass: organizationalUnit - ou: Group - -Add the entries to the LDAP directory: - - # ldapadd -x -D cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com -W -f baseldapdomain.ldif - -![Add LDAP Domain Attributes and Values](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Add-LDAP-Domain-Configuration.png) - -Add LDAP Domain Attributes and Values - -**8. Create a LDAP user called ldapuser (adduser ldapuser), then create the definitions for a LDAP group in `ldapgroup.ldif`.** - - # adduser ldapuser - # vi ldapgroup.ldif - -Add following content. - - dn: cn=Manager,ou=Group,dc=mydomain,dc=com - objectClass: top - objectClass: posixGroup - gidNumber: 1004 - -where gidNumber is the GID in /etc/group for ldapuser) and load it: - - # ldapadd -x -W -D "cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com" -f ldapgroup.ldif - -**9. Add a LDIF file with the definitions for user ldapuser (`ldapuser.ldif`):** - - dn: uid=ldapuser,ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com - objectClass: top - objectClass: account - objectClass: posixAccount - objectClass: shadowAccount - cn: ldapuser - uid: ldapuser - uidNumber: 1004 - gidNumber: 1004 - homeDirectory: /home/ldapuser - userPassword: {SSHA}fiN0YqzbDuDI0Fpqq9UudWmjZQY28S3M - loginShell: /bin/bash - gecos: ldapuser - shadowLastChange: 0 - shadowMax: 0 - shadowWarning: 0 - -and load it: - - # ldapadd -x -D cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com -W -f ldapuser.ldif - -![LDAP User Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-User-Configuration.png) - -LDAP User Configuration - -Likewise, you can delete the user entry you just created: - - # ldapdelete -x -W -D cn=Manager,dc=mydomain,dc=com "uid=ldapuser,ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com" - -**10. Allow communication through the firewall:** - - # firewall-cmd --add-service=ldap - -**11. Last, but not least, enable the client to authenticate using LDAP.** - -To help us in this final step, we will use the authconfig utility (an interface for configuring system authentication resources). - -Using the following command, the home directory for the requested user is created if it doesn’t exist after the authentication against the LDAP server succeeds: - - # authconfig --enableldap --enableldapauth --ldapserver=rhel7.mydomain.com --ldapbasedn="dc=mydomain,dc=com" --enablemkhomedir --update - -![LDAP Client Configuration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/LDAP-Client-Configuration.png) - -LDAP Client Configuration - -### Summary ### - -In this article we have explained how to set up basic authentication against a LDAP server. To further configure the setup described in the present guide, please refer to [Chapter 13 – LDAP Configuration][3] in the RHEL 7 System administrator’s guide, paying special attention to the security settings using TLS. - -Feel free to leave any questions you may have using the comment form below. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/setup-ldap-server-and-configure-client-authentication/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/automatic-rhel-installations-using-kickstart/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/manage-services-using-systemd-and-systemctl-in-linux/ -[3]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/System_Administrators_Guide/ch-Directory_Servers.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 15--Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM.md b/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 15--Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM.md deleted file mode 100644 index d9e06bd876..0000000000 --- a/sources/tech/RHCSA Series/RHCSA Series--Part 15--Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,188 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA Series: Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM – Part 15 -================================================================================ -If you look up the word virtualize in a dictionary, you will find that it means “to create a virtual (rather than actual) version of something”. In computing, the term virtualization refers to the possibility of running multiple operating systems simultaneously and isolated one from another, on top of the same physical (hardware) system, known in the virtualization schema as host. - -![KVM Virtualization Basics and KVM Guest Administration](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/RHCSA-Part15.png) - -RHCSA Series: Essentials of Virtualization and Guest Administration with KVM – Part 15 - -Through the use of the virtual machine monitor (also known as hypervisor), virtual machines (referred to as guests) are provided virtual resources (i.e. CPU, RAM, storage, network interfaces, to name a few) from the underlying hardware. - -With that in mind, it is plain to see that one of the main advantages of virtualization is cost savings (in equipment and network infrastructure and in terms of maintenance effort) and a substantial reduction in the physical space required to accommodate all the necessary hardware. - -Since this brief how-to cannot cover all virtualization methods, I encourage you to refer to the documentation listed in the summary for further details on the subject. - -Please keep in mind that the present article is intended to be a starting point to learn the basics of virtualization in RHEL 7 using [KVM][1] (Kernel-based Virtual Machine) with command-line utilities, and not an in-depth discussion of the topic. - -### Verifying Hardware Requirements and Installing Packages ### - -In order to set up virtualization, your CPU must support it. You can verify whether your system meets the requirements with the following command: - - # grep -E 'svm|vmx' /proc/cpuinfo - -In the following screenshot we can see that the current system (with an AMD microprocessor) supports virtualization, as indicated by svm. If we had an Intel-based processor, we would see vmx instead in the results of the above command. - -![Check KVM Support](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Check-KVM-Support.png) - -Check KVM Support - -In addition, you will need to have virtualization capabilities enabled in the firmware of your host (BIOS or UEFI). - -Now install the necessary packages: - -- qemu-kvm is an open source virtualizer that provides hardware emulation for the KVM hypervisor whereas qemu-img provides a command line tool for manipulating disk images. -- libvirt includes the tools to interact with the virtualization capabilities of the operating system. -- libvirt-python contains a module that permits applications written in Python to use the interface supplied by libvirt. -- libguestfs-tools: miscellaneous system administrator command line tools for virtual machines. -- virt-install: other command-line utilities for virtual machine administration. - - # yum update && yum install qemu-kvm qemu-img libvirt libvirt-python libguestfs-tools virt-install - -Once the installation completes, make sure you start and enable the libvirtd service: - - # systemctl start libvirtd.service - # systemctl enable libvirtd.service - -By default, each virtual machine will only be able to communicate with the rest in the same physical server and with the host itself. To allow the guests to reach other machines inside our LAN and also the Internet, we need to set up a bridge interface in our host (say br0, for example) by, - -1. adding the following line to our main NIC configuration (most likely `/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-enp0s3`): - - BRIDGE=br0 - -2. creating the configuration file for br0 (/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-br0) with these contents (note that you may have to change the IP address, gateway address, and DNS information): - - DEVICE=br0 - TYPE=Bridge - BOOTPROTO=static - IPADDR=192.168.0.18 - NETMASK=255.255.255.0 - GATEWAY=192.168.0.1 - NM_CONTROLLED=no - DEFROUTE=yes - PEERDNS=yes - PEERROUTES=yes - IPV4_FAILURE_FATAL=no - IPV6INIT=yes - IPV6_AUTOCONF=yes - IPV6_DEFROUTE=yes - IPV6_PEERDNS=yes - IPV6_PEERROUTES=yes - IPV6_FAILURE_FATAL=no - NAME=br0 - ONBOOT=yes - DNS1=8.8.8.8 - DNS2=8.8.4.4 - -3. finally, enabling packet forwarding by making, in `/etc/sysctl.conf`, - - net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1 - -and loading the changes to the current kernel configuration: - - # sysctl -p - -Note that you may also need to tell firewalld that this kind of traffic should be allowed. Remember that you can refer to the article on that topic in this same series ([Part 11: Network Traffic Control Using FirewallD and Iptables][2]) if you need help to do that. - -### Creating VM Images ### - -By default, VM images will be created to `/var/lib/libvirt/images` and you are strongly advised to not change this unless you really need to, know what you’re doing, and want to handle SELinux settings yourself (such topic is out of the scope of this tutorial but you can refer to Part 13 of the RHCSA series: [Mandatory Access Control Essentials with SELinux][3] if you want to refresh your memory). - -This means that you need to make sure that you have allocated the necessary space in that filesystem to accommodate your virtual machines. - -The following command will create a virtual machine named `tecmint-virt01` with 1 virtual CPU, 1 GB (=1024 MB) of RAM, and 20 GB of disk space (represented by `/var/lib/libvirt/images/tecmint-virt01.img`) using the rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso image located inside /home/gacanepa/ISOs as installation media and the br0 as network bridge: - - # virt-install \ - --network bridge=br0 - --name tecmint-virt01 \ - --ram=1024 \ - --vcpus=1 \ - --disk path=/var/lib/libvirt/images/tecmint-virt01.img,size=20 \ - --graphics none \ - --cdrom /home/gacanepa/ISOs/rhel-server-7.0-x86_64-dvd.iso - --extra-args="console=tty0 console=ttyS0,115200" - -If the installation file was located in a HTTP server instead of an image stored in your disk, you will have to replace the –cdrom flag with –location and indicate the address of the online repository. - -As for the –graphics none option, it tells the installer to perform the installation in text-mode exclusively. You can omit that flag if you are using a GUI interface and a VNC window to access the main VM console. Finally, with –extra-args we are passing kernel boot parameters to the installer that set up a serial VM console. - -The installation should now proceed as a regular (real) server now. If not, please review the steps listed above. - -### Managing Virtual Machines ### - -These are some typical administration tasks that you, as a system administrator, will need to perform on your virtual machines. Note that all of the following commands need to be run from your host: - -**1. List all VMs:** - - # virsh list --all - -From the output of the above command you will have to note the Id for the virtual machine (although it will also return its name and current status) because you will need it for most administration tasks related to a particular VM. - -**2. Display information about a guest:** - - # virsh dominfo [VM Id] - -**3. Start, restart, or stop a guest operating system:** - - # virsh start | reboot | shutdown [VM Id] - -**4. Access a VM’s serial console if networking is not available and no X server is running on the host:** - - # virsh console [VM Id] - -**Note** that this will require that you add the serial console configuration information to the `/etc/grub.conf` file (refer to the argument passed to the –extra-args option when the VM was created). - -**5. Modify assigned memory or virtual CPUs:** - -First, shutdown the guest: - - # virsh shutdown [VM Id] - -Edit the VM configuration for RAM: - - # virsh edit [VM Id] - -Then modify - - [Memory size here without brackets] - -Restart the VM with the new settings: - - # virsh create /etc/libvirt/qemu/tecmint-virt01.xml - -Finally, change the memory dynamically: - - # virsh setmem [VM Id] [Memory size here without brackets] - -For CPU: - - # virsh edit [VM Id] - -Then modify - - [Number of CPUs here without brackets] - -For further commands and details, please refer to table 26.1 in Chapter 26 of the RHEL 5 Virtualization guide (that guide, though a bit old, includes an exhaustive list of virsh commands used for guest administration). - -### SUMMARY ### - -In this article we have covered some basic aspects of virtualization with KVM in RHEL 7, which is both a vast and a fascinating topic, and I hope it will be helpful as a starting guide for you to later explore more advanced subjects found in the official [RHEL virtualization][4] getting started and [deployment / administration guides][5]. - -In addition, you can refer to the preceding articles in [this KVM series][6] in order to clarify or expand some of the concepts explained here. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/kvm-virtualization-basics-and-guest-administration/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.linux-kvm.org/page/Main_Page -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/firewalld-vs-iptables-and-control-network-traffic-in-firewall/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/selinux-essentials-and-control-filesystem-access/ -[4]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/Virtualization_Getting_Started_Guide/index.html -[5]:https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/7/html/Virtualization_Deployment_and_Administration_Guide/index.html -[6]:http://www.tecmint.com/install-and-configure-kvm-in-linux/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/share/20150923 Xenlism WildFire--Minimal Icon Theme For Linux Desktop.md b/translated/share/20150923 Xenlism WildFire--Minimal Icon Theme For Linux Desktop.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5bd7655a9e --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/share/20150923 Xenlism WildFire--Minimal Icon Theme For Linux Desktop.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +Xenlism WildFire: 一个精美的 Linux 桌面版主题 +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Xenlism-icon-theme-linux-3.png) + +有那么一段时间，我一直使用一个主题，没有更换过。可能是在最近的一段时间都没有一款主题能满足我的需求。有那么一些我认为是[Ubuntu 上最好的图标主题][1]，比如 Numix 和 Moka，并且，我一直也对 Numix 比较满意。 + +但是，一段时间后，我使用了[Xenslim WildFire][2]，并且我必须承认，他看起来太好了。Minimail 是当前比较流行的设计趋势。并且 Xenlism 完美的表现了它。平滑和美观。Xenlism 收到了诺基亚的 Meego 和苹果图标的影响。 + +让我们来看一下他的几个不同应用的图标: + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Xenlism-icons.png) + +文件夹图标看起来像这样: + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Xenlism-icons-1.png) + +主题开发者，[Nattapong Pullkhow][3], 说，这个图标主题最适合 GNOME，但是在 Unity 和 KDE,Mate 上也表现良好。 + +### 安装 Xenlism Wildfire ### + +Xenlism Theme 大约有 230 MB, 对于一个主题来说确实很大，但是考虑到它支持的庞大的软件数量，这个大小，确实也不是那么令人吃惊。 + +#### 在 Ubuntu/Debian 上安装 Xenlism #### + +在 Ubuntu 的变种中安装前，用以下的命令添加 GPG 秘钥： + + sudo apt-key adv --keyserver keys.gnupg.net --recv-keys 90127F5B + +添加完成之后，输入如下的命令进行安装： + + echo "deb http://downloads.sourceforge.net/project/xenlism-wildfire/repo deb/" | sudo tee -a /etc/apt/sources.list + sudo apt-get update + sudo apt-get install xenlism-wildfire-icon-theme + +除了主题之外，你也可以选择是否下载配套的桌面背景图： + + sudo apt-get install xenlism-artwork-wallpapers + +#### 在 Arch 上安装 Xenlism #### + +你需要编辑 Pacman 软件仓库。在终端中使用如下命令： + + sudo nano /etc/pacman.conf + + 添加如下的代码块，在配置文件中: + + [xenlism-arch] + SigLevel = Never + Server = http://downloads.sourceforge.net/project/xenlism-wildfire/repo/arch + +更新系统并且安装： + + sudo pacman -Syyu + sudo pacman -S xenlism-wildfire + +#### 使用 Xenlism 主题 #### + +在 Ubuntu Unity, [可以使用 Unity Tweak Tool 来改变主题][4]. In GNOME, [使用 Gnome Tweak Tool 改变主题][5]. 我确信你会接下来的步骤，如果你不会，请来信通知我，我会继续完善这篇文章。 + +这就是 Xenlism 在 Ubuntu 15.04 Unity 中的截图。同时也使用了 Xenlism 桌面背景。 + +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Xenlism-icons-2.png) + +这看来真棒，不是吗？如果你试用了，并且喜欢他，你可以感谢他的开发者： + +> [Xenlism is a stunning minimal icon theme for Linux. Thanks @xenatt for this beautiful theme.][6] + +我希望你喜欢他。同时也希望你分享你对这个主题的看法，或者你喜欢的主题。Xenlism 真的很棒，可能会替换掉你最喜欢的主题。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/xenlism-wildfire-theme/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[MikeCoder](https://github.com/MikeCoder) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://itsfoss.com/best-icon-themes-ubuntu-1404/ +[2]:http://xenlism.github.io/wildfire/ +[3]:https://plus.google.com/+NattapongPullkhow +[4]:http://itsfoss.com/install-numix-ubuntu/ +[5]:http://itsfoss.com/install-switch-themes-gnome-shell/ +[6]:https://twitter.com/share?text=Xenlism+is+a+stunning+minimal+icon+theme+for+Linux.+Thanks+%40xenatt+for+this+beautiful+theme.&via=itsfoss&related=itsfoss&url=http://itsfoss.com/xenlism-wildfire-theme/ diff --git a/translated/talk/20150823 How learning data structures and algorithms make you a better developer.md b/translated/talk/20150823 How learning data structures and algorithms make you a better developer.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8125229719 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/talk/20150823 How learning data structures and algorithms make you a better developer.md @@ -0,0 +1,123 @@ +学习数据结构与算法分析如何帮助您成为更优秀的开发人员? +================================================================================ + +> "相较于其它方式，我一直热衷于推崇围绕数据设计代码，我想这也是Git能够如此成功的一大原因[…]在我看来，区别程序员优劣的一大标准就在于他是否认为自己设计的代码或数据结构更为重要。" +-- Linus Torvalds + +--- + +> "优秀的数据结构与简陋的代码组合远比倒过来的组合方式更好。" +-- Eric S. Raymond, The Cathedral and The Bazaar + +学习数据结构与算法分析会让您成为一名出色的程序员。 + +**数据结构与算法分析是一种解决问题的思维模式** 在您的个人知识库中，数据结构与算法分析的相关知识储备越多，您将具备应对并解决越多各类繁杂问题的能力。掌握了这种思维模式，您还将有能力针对新问题提出更多以前想不到的漂亮的解决方案。 + +您将***更深入地***了解,计算机如何完成各项操作。无论您是否是直接使用给定的算法，它都影响着您作出的各种技术决定。从计算机操作系统的内存分配到RDBMS的内在工作机制，以及网络堆栈如何实现将数据从地球的一个角落发送至另一个角落这些大大小小的工作的完成，都离不开基础的数据结构与算法，理解并掌握它将会让您更了解计算机的运作机理。 + +对算法广泛深入的学习能让为您应对大体系的问题储备解决方案。之前建模困难时遇到的问题如今通常都能融合进经典的数据结构中得到很好地解决。即使是最基础的数据结构，只要对它进行足够深入的钻研，您将会发现在每天的编程任务中都能经常用到这些知识。 + +有了这种思维模式，在遇到磨棱两可的问题时，您会具备想出新的解决方案的能力。即使最初并没有打算用数据结构与算法解决相应问题的情况，当真正用它们解决这些问题时您会发现它们将非常有用。要意识到这一点，您至少要对数据结构与算法分析的基础知识有深入直观的认识。 + +理论认识就讲到这里，让我们一起看看下面几个例子。 + +###最短路径问题### + +我们想要开发一个计算从一个国际机场出发到另一个国际机场的最短距离的软件。假设我们受限于以下路线： + +![](http://www.happybearsoftware.com/assets/posts/how-learning-data-structures-and-algorithms-makes-you-a-better-developer/airport-graph-d2e32b3344b708383e405d67a80c29ea.svg) + +从这张画出机场各自之间的距离以及目的地的图中，我们如何才能找到最短距离，比方说从赫尔辛基到伦敦？**Dijkstra算法**是能让我们在最短的时间得到正确答案的适用算法。 + +在所有可能的解法中，如果您曾经遇到过这类问题，知道可以用Dijkstra算法求解，您大可不必从零开始实现它，只需***知道***该算法能指向固定的代码库帮助您解决相关的实现问题。 + +实现了该算法，您将深入理解一项著名的重要图论算法。您会发现实际上该算法太集成化，因此名为A*的扩展包经常会代替该算法使用。这个算法应用广泛，从机器人指引的功能实现到TCP数据包路由，以及GPS寻径问题都能应用到这个算法。 + +###先后排序问题### + +您想要在开放式在线课程平台上(如Udemy或Khan学院)学习某课程，有些课程之间彼此依赖。例如，用户学习牛顿力学机制课程前必须先修微积分课程，课程之间可以有多种依赖关系。用YAML表述举例如下： + + # Mapping from course name to requirements + # + # If you're a physcist or a mathematicisn and you're reading this, sincere + # apologies for the completely made-up dependency tree :) + courses: + arithmetic: [] + algebra: [arithmetic] + trigonometry: [algebra] + calculus: [algebra, trigonometry] + geometry: [algebra] + mechanics: [calculus, trigonometry] + atomic_physics: [mechanics, calculus] + electromagnetism: [calculus, atomic_physics] + radioactivity: [algebra, atomic_physics] + astrophysics: [radioactivity, calculus] + quantumn_mechanics: [atomic_physics, radioactivity, calculus] + +鉴于以上这些依赖关系，作为一名用户，我希望系统能帮我列出必修课列表，让我在之后可以选择任意一门课程学习。如果我选择了`微积分`课程，我希望系统能返回以下列表： + + arithmetic -> algebra -> trigonometry -> calculus + +这里有两个潜在的重要约束条件： + + - 返回的必修课列表中，每门课都与下一门课存在依赖关系 + - 必修课列表中不能有重复项 + +这是解决数据间依赖关系的例子，解决该问题的排序算法称作拓扑排序算法(tsort)。它适用于解决上述我们用YAML列出的依赖关系图的情况，以下是在图中显示的相关结果(其中箭头代表`需要先修的课程`): + +![](http://www.happybearsoftware.com/assets/posts/how-learning-data-structures-and-algorithms-makes-you-a-better-developer/course-graph-2f60f42bb0dc95319954ce34c02705a2.svg) + +拓扑排序算法的实现就是从如上所示的图中找到满足各层次要求的依赖关系。因此如果我们只列出包含`radioactivity`和与它有依赖关系的子图，运行tsort排序，会得到如下的顺序表： + + arithmetic + algebra + trigonometry + calculus + mechanics + atomic_physics + radioactivity + +这符合我们上面描述的需求，用户只需选出`radioactivity`，就能得到在此之前所有必修课程的有序列表。 + +在运用该排序算法之前，我们甚至不需要深入了解算法的实现细节。一般来说，选择不同的编程语言在其标准库中都会有相应的算法实现。即使最坏的情况，Unix也会默认安装`tsort`程序，运行`tsort`程序，您就可以实现该算法。 + +###其它拓扑排序适用场合### + + - **工具** 使用诸如`make`的工具您可以声明任务之间的依赖关系，这里拓扑排序算法将从底层实现具有依赖关系的任务顺序执行的功能。 + - **有`require`指令的编程语言**,适用于要运行当前文件需先运行另一个文件的情况。这里拓扑排序用于识别文件运行顺序以保证每个文件只加载一次，且满足所有文件间的依赖关系要求。 + - **包含甘特图的项目管理工具**.甘特图能直观列出给定任务的所有依赖关系，在这些依赖关系之上能提供给用户任务完成的预估时间。我不常用到甘特图，但这些绘制甘特图的工具很可能会用到拓扑排序算法。 + +###霍夫曼编码实现数据压缩### +[霍夫曼编码](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffman_coding)是一种用于无损数据压缩的编码算法。它的工作原理是先分析要压缩的数据，再为每个字符创建一个二进制编码。字符出现的越频繁，编码赋值越小。因此在一个数据集中`e`可能会编码为`111`，而`x`会编码为`10010`。创建了这种编码模式，就可以串联无定界符，也能正确地进行解码。 + +在gzip中使用的DEFLATE算法就结合了霍夫曼编码与LZ77一同用于实现数据压缩功能。gzip应用领域很广，特别适用于文件压缩(以`.gz`为扩展名的文件)以及用于数据传输中的http请求与应答。 + +学会实现并使用霍夫曼编码有如下益处： + + - 您会理解为什么较大的压缩文件会获得较好的整体压缩效果(如压缩的越多，压缩率也越高)。这也是SPDY协议得以推崇的原因之一：在复杂的HTTP请求/响应过程数据有更好的压缩效果。 + - 您会了解数据传输过程中如果想要压缩JavaScript/CSS文件，运行压缩软件是完全没有意义的。PNG文件也是类似，因为它们已经使用DEFLATE算法完成了压缩。 + - 如果您试图强行破译加密的信息，您可能会发现重复数据压缩质量越好，给定的密文单位bit的数据压缩将帮助您确定相关的[分组密码模式](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation). + +###下一步选择学习什么是困难的### +作为一名程序员应当做好持续学习的准备。为成为一名web开发人员，您需要了解标记语言以及Ruby/Python，正则表达式，SQL，JavaScript等高级编程语言，还需要了解HTTP的工作原理，如何运行UNIX终端以及面向对象的编程艺术。您很难有效地预览到未来的职业全景，因此选择下一步要学习哪些知识是困难的。 + +我没有快速学习的能力，因此我不得不在时间花费上非常谨慎。我希望尽可能地学习到有持久生命力的技能，即不会在几年内就过时的技术。这意味着我也会犹豫这周是要学习JavaScript框架还是那些新的编程语言。 + +只要占主导地位的计算模型体系不变，我们如今使用的数据结构与算法在未来也必定会以另外的形式继续适用。您可以放心地将时间投入到深入掌握数据结构与算法知识中，它们将会成为您作为一名程序员的职业生涯中一笔长期巨大的财富。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.happybearsoftware.com/how-learning-data-structures-and-algorithms-makes-you-a-better-developer + +作者：[Happy Bear][a] +译者：[icybreaker](https://github.com/icybreaker) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.happybearsoftware.com/ +[1]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffman_coding +[2]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation + + + diff --git a/translated/talk/The history of Android/18 - The history of Android.md b/translated/talk/The history of Android/18 - The history of Android.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f4781cc621 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/talk/The history of Android/18 - The history of Android.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +安卓编年史 +================================================================================ +![安卓市场的新设计试水“卡片式”界面，这将成为谷歌的主要风格。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/play-store.png) +安卓市场的新设计试水“卡片式”界面，这将成为谷歌的主要风格。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +安卓推向市场已经有两年半时间了，安卓市场放出了它的第四版设计。这个新设计十分重要，因为它已经很接近谷歌的“卡片式”界面了。通过在小方块中显示应用或其他内容，谷歌可以使其设计在不同尺寸屏幕下无缝过渡而不受影响。内容可以像一个相册应用里的照片一样显示——给布局渲染填充一个内容块列表，加上屏幕包装，就完成了。更大的屏幕一次可以看到更多的内容块，小点的屏幕一次看到的内容就少。内容用了不一样的方式显示，谷歌还在右边新增了一个“分类”板块，顶部还有个巨大的热门应用滚动显示。 + +虽然设计上为更容易配置界面准备好准备好了，但功能上还没有。最初发布的市场版本锁定为横屏模式，而且还是蜂巢独占的。 + +![应用详情页和“我的应用”界面。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/device-2014-02-12-190002.png) +应用详情页和“我的应用”界面。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +新的市场不仅出售应用，还加入了书籍和电影租借。谷歌从2010年开始出售图书；之前只通过网站出售。新的市场将谷歌所有的内容销售聚合到了一处，进一步向苹果 iTunes 的主宰展开较量。虽然在“安卓市场”出售这些东西有点品牌混乱，因为大部分内容都不依赖于安卓才能使用。 + +![浏览器看起来非常像 Chrome，联系人使用了双面板界面。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/browsercontactst.png) +浏览器看起来非常像 Chrome，联系人使用了双面板界面。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +新浏览器界面顶部添加了标签页栏。尽管这个浏览器并不是 Chrome ，它模仿了许多 Chrome 的设计和特性。除了这个探索性的顶部标签页界面，浏览器还加入了隐身标签，在浏览网页时不保存历史记录和自动补全记录。它还有个选项可以让你拥有一个 Chrome 风格的新标签页，页面上包含你最经常访问的网页略缩图。 + +新浏览器甚至还能和 Chrome 同步。在浏览器登录后，它会下载你的 Chrome 书签并且自动登录你的谷歌账户。收藏一个页面只需点击地址栏的星形标志即可，和谷歌地图一样，浏览器抛弃了缩放按钮，完全改用手势控制。 + +联系人应用最终从电话应用中移除，并且独立为一个应用。之前的联系人/拨号混合式设计相对于人们使用现代智能手机的方式来说，过于以电话为中心了。联系人中存有电子邮件，IM，短信，地址，生日，以及社交网络等信息，所以将它们捆绑在电话应用里的意义和将它们放进谷歌地图里差不多。抛开了电话通讯功能，联系人能够简化成没有标签页的联系人列表。蜂巢采用了双面板视图，在左侧显示完整的联系人列表，右侧是联系人详情。应用利用了 Fragments API，通过它应用可以在同一屏显示多个面板界面。 + +蜂巢版本的联系人应用是第一个拥有快速滚动功能的版本。当按住左侧滚动条的时候，你可以快速上下拖动，应用会显示列表当前位置的首字母预览。 + +![新 Youtube 应用看起来像是来自黑客帝国。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/youtubes.png) +新 Youtube 应用看起来像是来自黑客帝国。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +谢天谢地 Youtube 终于抛弃了自安卓 2.3 以来的谷歌给予这个视频服务的“独特”设计，新界面设计与系统更加一体化。主界面是一个水平滚动的曲面墙，上面显示着最热门或者（登录之后）个人关注的视频。虽然谷歌从来没有将这个设计带到手机上，但它可以被认为是一个易于重新配置的卡片界面。操作栏在这里是个可配置的工具栏。没有登录时，操作栏由一个搜索栏填满。当你登录后，搜索缩小为一个按钮，“首页”，“浏览”和“你的频道”标签将会显示出来。 + +![蜂巢用一个蓝色框架的电脑界面来驱动主屏。电影工作室完全采用橙色电子风格主题。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/other2.png) +蜂巢用一个蓝色框架的电脑界面来驱动主屏。电影工作室完全采用橙色电子风格主题。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +蜂巢新增的应用“电影工作室”，这不是一个不言自明的应用，而且没有任何的解释或说明。就我们所知，你可以导入视频，剪切它们，添加文本和场景过渡。编辑视频——电脑上你可以做的最耗时，困难，以及处理器密集型任务之一——在平板上完成感觉有点野心过大了，谷歌在之后的版本里将其完全移除了。电影工作室里我们最喜欢的部分是它完全的电子风格主题。虽然系统的其它部分使用蓝色高亮，在这里是橙色的。（电影工作室是个邪恶的程序！） + +![小部件！](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/device-2014-02-12-202224.png) +小部件！ +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +蜂巢带来了新的部件框架，允许部件滚动，Gmail，Email 以及日历部件都升级了以支持改功能。Youtube 和书籍使用了新的部件，内容卡片可以自动滚动切换。在小部件上轻轻向上或向下滑动可以切换卡片。我们不确定你的书籍中哪些书会被显示出来，但如果你想要的话它就在那儿。尽管所有的这些小部件在10英寸屏幕上运行良好，谷歌从未将它们重新设计给手机，这让它们在安卓最流行的规格上几乎毫无用处。所有的小部件有个大块的标识标题栏，而且通常占据大半屏幕只显示很少的内容。 + +![安卓3.1中可滚动的最近应用以及可自定义大小的小部件。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/31new.jpg) +安卓3.1中可滚动的最近应用以及可自定义大小的小部件。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +蜂巢后续的版本修复了3.0早期的一些问题。安卓3.1在蜂巢的第一个版本之后三个月放出，并带来了一些改进。小部件自定义大小是添加的最大特性之一。长按小部件之后，一个带有拖拽按钮的蓝色外框会显示出来，拖动按钮可以改变小部件尺寸。最近应用界面现在可以垂直滚动并且承载更多应用。这个版本唯一缺失的功能是滑动关闭应用。 + +在今天，一个0.1版本的升级是个主要更新，但是在蜂巢，那只是个小更新。除了一些界面调整，3.1添加了对游戏手柄，键盘，鼠标以及其它USB和蓝牙输入设备的支持。它还提供了更多的开发者API。 + +![安卓3.2的兼容性缩放和一个安卓平板上典型的展开视图应用。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/device-2014-02-14-131132.jpg) +安卓3.2的兼容性缩放和一个安卓平板上典型的展开视图应用。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +安卓3.2在3.1发布后两个月放出，添加了七到八英寸的小尺寸平板支持。3.2终于启用了SD卡支持，Xoom 在生命最初的五个月像是抱着个不完整的肢体一样。 + +蜂巢匆匆问世是为了成为一个生态系统建设者。如果应用没有平板版本，没人会想要一个安卓平板的，所以谷歌知道需要尽快将东西送到开发者手中。在这个安卓平板生态的早期阶段，应用还没有到齐。这是拥有 Xoom 的人们所面临的最大的问题。 + +3.2添加了“兼容缩放”，给了用户一个新选项，可以将应用拉伸适应屏幕（如右侧图片显示的那样）或缩放成正常的应用布局来适应屏幕。这些选项都不是很理想，没有应用生态来支持平板，蜂巢设备销售状况惨淡。但谷歌的平板决策最终还是会得到回报。今天，安卓平板已经[取代 iOS 占据了最大的市场份额][1]。 + +---------- + +![Ron Amadeo](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content//uploads/authors/ron-amadeo-sq.jpg) + +[Ron Amadeo][a] / Ron是Ars Technica的评论编缉，专注于安卓系统和谷歌产品。他总是在追寻新鲜事物，还喜欢拆解事物看看它们到底是怎么运作的。 + +[@RonAmadeo][t] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/06/building-android-a-40000-word-history-of-googles-mobile-os/18/ + +译者：[alim0x](https://github.com/alim0x) 校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://techcrunch.com/2014/03/03/gartner-195m-tablets-sold-in-2013-android-grabs-top-spot-from-ipad-with-62-share/ +[a]:http://arstechnica.com/author/ronamadeo +[t]:https://twitter.com/RonAmadeo diff --git a/translated/talk/The history of Android/19 - The history of Android.md b/translated/talk/The history of Android/19 - The history of Android.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2ea47bc778 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/talk/The history of Android/19 - The history of Android.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +安卓编年史 +================================================================================ +![姜饼上的 Google Music Beta。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/device-2014-03-31-110613.png) +姜饼上的 Google Music Beta。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +### Google Music Beta —— 取代内容商店的云存储 ### + +尽管蜂巢改进了 Google Music 的界面，但是音乐应用的设计并没有从蜂巢直接进化到冰淇淋三明治。2011年5月，谷歌发布了“[Google Music Beta][1]”，和新的 Google Music 应用一同到来的在线音乐存储。 + +新 Google Music 为安卓2.2及以上版本设计，借鉴了 Cooliris 相册的设计语言，但也有改变之处，背景使用了模糊处理的图片。几乎所有东西都是透明的：弹出菜单，顶部标签页，还有底部的正在播放栏。可以下载单独的歌曲或整个播放列表到设备上离线播放，这让 Google Music 成为一个让音乐同步到你所有设备的好途径。除了移动应用外，Google Music 还有一个 Web 应用，让它可以在任何一台桌面电脑上使用。 + +谷歌和唱片公司关于内容的合约还没有谈妥，音乐商店还没准备好，所以它的权宜之计是允许用户存储音乐到线上并下载到设备上。如今谷歌除了音乐存储服务外，还有单曲购买和订阅模式。 + +### Android 4.0， 冰淇淋三明治 —— 摩登时代 ### + +![三星 Galaxy Nexus，安卓4.0的首发设备。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/samsung-i9250-galaxy-nexus-51.jpg) +三星 Galaxy Nexus，安卓4.0的首发设备。 + +安卓4.0，冰淇淋三明治，在2011年10月发布，系统发布回到正轨，带来定期发布的手机和平板，并且安卓再次开源。这是自姜饼以来手机设备的第一个更新，意味着最主要的安卓用户群体近乎一年没有见到更新了。4.0随处可见缩小版的蜂巢设计，还将虚拟按键，操作栏（Action Bar），全新的设计语言带到了手机上。 + +冰淇淋三明治在三星 Galaxy Nexus 上首次亮相，也是最早带有720p显示屏的安卓手机之一。随着分辨率的提高，Galaxy Nexus 使用了更大的4.65英寸显示屏——几乎比最初的 Nexus One 大了一整英寸。这被许多批评者认为“太大了”，但如今的安卓设备甚至更大。（5英寸现在是“正常”的。）冰淇淋三明治比姜饼的性能要求更高，Galaxy Nexus 配备了一颗双核，1.2Ghz 德州仪器 OMAP 处理器和1GB的内存。 + +在美国，Galaxy Nexus 在 Verizon 首发并且支持 LTE。不像之前的 Nexus 设备，最流行的型号——Verizon版——是在运营商的控制之下，谷歌的软件和更新在手机得到更新之前要经过 Verizon 的核准。这导致了更新的延迟以及 Verizon 不喜欢的应用被移除，即便是 Google Wallet 也不例外。 + +多亏了冰淇淋三明治的软件改进，谷歌终于达成了移除手机上按钮的目标。有了虚拟导航键，实体电容按钮就可以移除了，最终 Galaxy Nexus 仅有电源和音量是实体按键。 + +![安卓4.0将很多蜂巢的设计缩小了。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/2home.png) +安卓4.0将很多蜂巢的设计缩小了。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +电子质感的审美在蜂巢中显得有点多。于是在冰淇淋三明治中，谷歌开始减少科幻风的设计。科幻风的时钟字体从半透明折叠风格转变成纤细，优雅，看起来更加正常的字体。解锁环的水面波纹效果被去除了，蜂巢中的外星风格时钟小部件也被极简设计所取代。系统按钮也经过了重新设计，原先的蓝色轮廓，偶尔的厚边框变成了细的，设置带有白色轮廓。默认壁纸从蜂巢的蓝色太空船内部变成条纹状，破碎的彩虹，给默认布局增添了不少迟来的色彩。 + +蜂巢的系统栏在手机上一分为二。在顶上是传统的状态栏，底部是新的系统栏，放着三个系统按钮：后退，主屏幕，最近应用。一个固定的搜索栏放置在了主屏幕顶部。该栏以和底栏一样的方式固定在屏幕上，所以在五个主屏上，它总共占据了20个图标大小的位置。在蜂巢的锁屏上，内部的小圆圈可以向大圆圈外的任意位置滑动来解锁设备。在冰淇淋三明治，你得把小圆圈移动到解锁图标上。这个新准确度要求允许谷歌向锁屏添加新的选项：一个相机快捷方式。将小圆圈拖向相机图标会直接启动相机，跳过了主屏幕。 + +![一个手机系统意味着更多的应用，通知面板重新回到了全屏界面。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/appsandnotic40.png) +一个手机系统意味着更多的应用，通知面板重新回到了全屏界面。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +应用抽屉还是标签页式的，但是蜂巢中的“我的应用”标签被“部件”标签页替代，这是个简单的2×3部件略缩图视图。像蜂巢里的那样，这个应用抽屉是分页的，需要水平滑动换页。（如今安卓仍在使用这个应用抽屉设计。）应用抽屉里新增的是 Google+ 应用，后来独立存在。还有一个“Messenger”快捷方式，是 Google+ 的私密信息服务。（不要混淆 “Messenger” 和已有的 “Messaging” 短信应用。） + +因为我们现在回到了手机上，所以短信，新闻和天气，电话，以及语音拨号都回来了，以及Cordy，一个平板的游戏，被移除了。尽管不是 Nexus 设备，我们的截图还是来自 Verizon 版的设备，可以从图上看到有像 “My Verizon Mobile” 和 “VZ Backup Assistant” 这样没用的应用。为了和冰淇淋三明治的去电子风格主题一致，日历和相机图标现在看起来更像是来自地球的东西而不是来自外星球。时钟，下载，电话，以及安卓市场同样得到了新图标，联系人“Contacts”获得了新图标，还有新名字“People”。 + +通知面板进行了大改造，特别是和[之前姜饼中的设计][2]相比而言。面板头部有个日期，一个设置的快捷方式，以及“清除所有”按钮。虽然蜂巢的第一个版本就允许用户通过通知右边的“X”消除单个通知，但是冰淇淋三明治的实现更加优雅：只要从左向右滑动通知即可。蜂巢有着蓝色高亮，但是蓝色色调到处都是。冰淇淋三明治几乎把所有地方的蓝色统一成一个（如果你想知道确定的值，hex码是#33B5E5）。通知面板的背景是透明的，底部的“把手”变为一个简单的小蓝圈，带着不透明的黑色背景。 + +![安卓市场的主页背景变成了黑色。](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/market.png) +安卓市场的主页背景变成了黑色。 +Ron Amadeo 供图 + +市场获得了又一个新设计。它终于再次支持纵向模式，并且添加了音乐到商店中，你可以从中购买音乐。新的市场拓展了从蜂巢中引入的卡片概念，它还是第一个同时使用在手机和平板上的版本。主页上的卡片通常不是链接到应用的，而是指向特别的促销页面，像是“编辑精选”或季度促销。 + +---------- + +![Ron Amadeo](http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content//uploads/authors/ron-amadeo-sq.jpg) + +[Ron Amadeo][a] / Ron是Ars Technica的评论编缉，专注于安卓系统和谷歌产品。他总是在追寻新鲜事物，还喜欢拆解事物看看它们到底是怎么运作的。 + +[@RonAmadeo][t] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/06/building-android-a-40000-word-history-of-googles-mobile-os/19/ + +译者：[alim0x](https://github.com/alim0x) 校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[1]:http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/05/hands-on-grooving-on-the-go-with-impressive-google-music-beta/ +[2]:http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/32.png +[a]:http://arstechnica.com/author/ronamadeo +[t]:https://twitter.com/RonAmadeo diff --git a/translated/tech/20150410 How to run Ubuntu Snappy Core on Raspberry Pi 2.md b/translated/tech/20150410 How to run Ubuntu Snappy Core on Raspberry Pi 2.md deleted file mode 100644 index f5e6fe60b2..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/20150410 How to run Ubuntu Snappy Core on Raspberry Pi 2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,89 +0,0 @@ -如何在树莓派2 代运行ubuntu Snappy Core -================================================================================ -物联网(Internet of Things, IoT) 时代即将来临。很快，过不了几年，我们就会问自己当初是怎么在没有物联网的情况下生存的，就像我们现在怀疑过去没有手机的年代。Canonical 就是一个物联网快速发展却还是开放市场下的竞争者。这家公司宣称自己把赌注压到了IoT 上，就像他们已经在“云”上做过的一样。。在今年一月底，Canonical 启动了一个基于Ubuntu Core 的小型操作系统，名字叫做 [Ubuntu Snappy Core][1] 。 - -Snappy 是一种用来替代deb 的新的打包格式，是一个用来更新系统的前端，从CoreOS、红帽子和其他系统借鉴了**原子更新**这个想法。树莓派2 代投入市场，Canonical 很快就发布了用于树莓派的Snappy Core 版本。而第一代树莓派因为是基于ARMv6 ，Ubuntu 的ARM 镜像是基于ARMv7 ，所以不能运行ubuntu 。不过这种状况现在改变了，Canonical 通过发布用于RPI2 的镜像，抓住机会证明了Snappy 就是一个用于云计算，特别是用于物联网的系统。 - -Snappy 同样可以运行在其它像Amazon EC2, Microsofts Azure, Google的 Compute Engine 这样的云端上，也可以虚拟化在KVM、Virtuabox 和vagrant 上。Canonical Ubuntu 已经拥抱了微软、谷歌、Docker、OpenStack 这些重量级选手，同时也与一些小项目达成合作关系。除了一些创业公司，比如Ninja Sphere、Erle Robotics，还有一些开发板生产商，比如Odroid、Banana Pro, Udoo, PCDuino 和Parallella 、全志，Snappy 也提供了支持。Snappy Core 同时也希望尽快运行到路由器上来帮助改进路由器生产商目前很少更新固件的策略。 - -接下来，让我们看看怎么样在树莓派2 上运行Snappy。 - -用于树莓派2 的Snappy 镜像可以从 [Raspberry Pi 网站][2] 上下载。解压缩出来的镜像必须[写到一个至少8GB 大小的SD 卡][3]。尽管原始系统很小，但是原子升级和回滚功能会占用不小的空间。使用Snappy 启动树莓派2 后你就可以使用默认用户名和密码(都是ubuntu)登录系统。 - -![](https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7639/16428527263_f7bdd56a0d_c.jpg) - -sudo 已经配置好了可以直接用，安全起见，你应该使用以下命令来修改你的用户名 - - $ sudo usermod -l - -或者也可以使用`adduser` 为你添加一个新用户。 - -因为RPI缺少硬件时钟，而Snappy 并不知道这一点，所以系统会有一个小bug：处理某些命令时会报很多错。不过这个很容易解决： - -使用这个命令来确认这个bug 是否影响： - - $ date - -如果输出是 "Thu Jan 1 01:56:44 UTC 1970"， 你可以这样做来改正： - - $ sudo date --set="Sun Apr 04 17:43:26 UTC 2015" - -改成你的实际时间。 - -![](https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8735/16426231744_c54d9b8877_b.jpg) - -现在你可能打算检查一下，看看有没有可用的更新。注意通常使用的命令： - - $ sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get distupgrade - -不过这时系统不会让你通过，因为Snappy 使用它自己精简过的、基于dpkg 的包管理系统。这么做的原因是Snappy 会运行很多嵌入式程序，而同时你也会想着所有事情尽可能的简化。 - -让我们来看看最关键的部分，理解一下程序是如何与Snappy 工作的。运行Snappy 的SD 卡上除了boot 分区外还有3个分区。其中的两个构成了一个重复的文件系统。这两个平行文件系统被固定挂载为只读模式，并且任何时刻只有一个是激活的。第三个分区是一个部分可写的文件系统，用来让用户存储数据。通过更新系统，标记为'system-a' 的分区会保持一个完整的文件系统，被称作核心，而另一个平行文件系统仍然会是空的。 - -![](https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8758/16841251947_21f42609ce_b.jpg) - -如果我们运行以下命令： - - $ sudo snappy update - -系统将会在'system-b' 上作为一个整体进行更新，这有点像是更新一个镜像文件。接下来你将会被告知要重启系统来激活新核心。 - -重启之后，运行下面的命令可以检查你的系统是否已经更新到最新版本，以及当前被激活的是那个核心 - - $ sudo snappy versions -a - -经过更新-重启两步操作，你应该可以看到被激活的核心已经被改变了。 - -因为到目前为止我们还没有安装任何软件，下面的命令： - - $ sudo snappy update ubuntu-core - -将会生效，而且如果你打算仅仅更新特定的OS 版本，这也是一个办法。如果出了问题，你可以使用下面的命令回滚： - - $ sudo snappy rollback ubuntu-core - -这将会把系统状态回滚到更新之前。 - -![](https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7666/17022676786_5fe6804ed8_c.jpg) - -再来说说那些让Snappy 有用的软件。这里不会讲的太多关于如何构建软件、向Snappy 应用商店添加软件的基础知识，但是你可以通过Freenode 上的IRC 频道#snappy 了解更多信息，那个上面有很多人参与。你可以通过浏览器访问http://:4200 来浏览应用商店，然后从商店安装软件，再在浏览器里访问http://webdm.local 来启动程序。如何构建用于Snappy 的软件并不难，而且也有了现成的[参考文档][4] 。你也可以很容易的把DEB 安装包使用Snappy 格式移植到Snappy 上。 - -![](https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7656/17022676836_968a2a7254_c.jpg) - -尽管Ubuntu Snappy Core 吸引我们去研究新型的Snappy 安装包格式和Canonical 式的原子更新操作，但是因为有限的可用应用，它现在在生产环境里还不是很有用。但是既然搭建一个Snappy 环境如此简单，这看起来是一个学点新东西的好机会。 - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://xmodulo.com/ubuntu-snappy-core-raspberry-pi-2.html - -作者：[Ferdinand Thommes][a] -译者：[Ezio](https://github.com/oska874) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://xmodulo.com/author/ferdinand -[1]:http://www.ubuntu.com/things -[2]:http://www.raspberrypi.org/downloads/ -[3]:http://xmodulo.com/write-raspberry-pi-image-sd-card.html -[4]:https://developer.ubuntu.com/en/snappy/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150623 Shilpa Nair Shares Her Interview Experience on RedHat Linux Package Management.md b/translated/tech/20150623 Shilpa Nair Shares Her Interview Experience on RedHat Linux Package Management.md deleted file mode 100644 index f095a31c65..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/20150623 Shilpa Nair Shares Her Interview Experience on RedHat Linux Package Management.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,348 +0,0 @@ -Shilpa Nair 分享了她面试 RedHat Linux 包管理方面的经验 -======================================================================== -**Shilpa Nair 刚于2015年毕业。她之后去了一家位于 Noida，Delhi 的国家新闻电视台，应聘实习生的岗位。在她去年毕业季的时候，常逛 Tecmint 寻求作业上的帮助。从那时开始，她就常去 Tecmint。** - -![Linux Interview Questions on RPM](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Linux-Interview-Questions-on-RPM.jpeg) - -有关 RPM 方面的 Linux 面试题 - -所有的问题和回答都是 Shilpa Nair 根据回忆重写的。 - -> “大家好！我是来自 Delhi 的Shilpa Nair。我不久前才顺利毕业，正寻找一个实习的机会。在大学早期的时候，我就对 UNIX 十分喜爱，所以我也希望这个机会能适合我，满足我的兴趣。我被提问了很多问题，大部分都是关于 RedHat 包管理的基础问题。” - -下面就是我被问到的问题，和对应的回答。我仅贴出了与 RedHat GNU/Linux 包管理相关的，也是主要被提问的。 - -### 1，里如何查找一个包安装与否？假设你需要确认 ‘nano’ 有没有安装，你怎么做？ ### - -> **回答**：为了确认 nano 软件包有没有安装，我们可以使用 rpm 命令，配合 -q 和 -a 选项来查询所有已安装的包 -> -> # rpm -qa nano -> OR -> # rpm -qa | grep -i nano -> -> nano-2.3.1-10.el7.x86_64 -> -> 同时包的名字必须是完成的，不完整的包名返回提示，不打印任何东西，就是说这包（包名字不全）未安装。下面的例子会更好理解些： -> -> 我们通常使用 vim 替代 vi 命令。当时如果我们查找安装包 vi/vim 的时候，我们就会看到标准输出上没有任何结果。 -> -> # vi -> # vim -> -> 尽管如此，我们仍然可以通过使用 vi/vim 命令来清楚地知道包有没有安装。Here is ... name（这句不知道）。如果我们不确切知道完整的文件名，我们可以使用通配符： -> -> # rpm -qa vim* -> -> vim-minimal-7.4.160-1.el7.x86_64 -> -> 通过这种方式，我们可以获得任何软件包的信息，安装与否。 - -### 2. 你如何使用 rpm 命令安装 XYZ 软件包？ ### - -> **回答**：我们可以使用 rpm 命令安装任何的软件包（*.rpm），像下面这样，选项 -i（install），-v（冗余或者显示额外的信息）和 -h（打印#号显示进度，在安装过程中）。 -> -> # rpm -ivh peazip-1.11-1.el6.rf.x86_64.rpm -> -> Preparing... ################################# [100%] -> Updating / installing... -> 1:peazip-1.11-1.el6.rf ################################# [100%] -> -> 如果要升级一个早期版本的包，应加上 -U 选项，选项 -v 和 -h 可以确保我们得到用 # 号表示的冗余输出，这增加了可读性。 - -### 3. 你已经安装了一个软件包（假设是 httpd），现在你想看看软件包创建并安装的所有文件和目录，你会怎么做？ ### - -> **回答**：使用选项 -l（列出所有文件）和 -q（查询）列出 httpd 软件包安装的所有文件（Linux哲学：所有的都是文件，包括目录）。 -> -> # rpm -ql httpd -> -> /etc/httpd -> /etc/httpd/conf -> /etc/httpd/conf.d -> ... - -### 4. 假如你要移除一个软件包，叫 postfix。你会怎么做？ ### - -> **回答**：首先我们需要知道什么包安装了 postfix。查找安装 postfix 的包名后，使用 -e（擦除/卸载软件包）和 -v（冗余输出）两个选项来实现。 -> -> # rpm -qa postfix* -> -> postfix-2.10.1-6.el7.x86_64 -> -> 然后移除 postfix，如下: -> -> # rpm -ev postfix-2.10.1-6.el7.x86_64 -> -> Preparing packages... -> postfix-2:3.0.1-2.fc22.x86_64 - -### 5. 获得一个已安装包的具体信息，如版本，发行号，安装日期，大小，总结和一个间短的描述。 ### - -> **回答**：我们通过使用 rpm 的选项 -qi，后面接包名，可以获得关于一个已安装包的具体信息。 -> -> 举个例子，为了获得 openssh 包的具体信息，我需要做的就是： -> -> # rpm -qi openssh -> -> [root@tecmint tecmint]# rpm -qi openssh -> Name : openssh -> Version : 6.8p1 -> Release : 5.fc22 -> Architecture: x86_64 -> Install Date: Thursday 28 May 2015 12:34:50 PM IST -> Group : Applications/Internet -> Size : 1542057 -> License : BSD -> .... - -### 6. 假如你不确定一个指定包的配置文件在哪，比如 httpd。你如何找到所有 httpd 提供的配置文件列表和位置。 ### - -> **回答**： 我们需要用选项 -c 接包名，这会列出所有配置文件的名字和他们的位置。 -> -> # rpm -qc httpd -> -> /etc/httpd/conf.d/autoindex.conf -> /etc/httpd/conf.d/userdir.conf -> /etc/httpd/conf.d/welcome.conf -> /etc/httpd/conf.modules.d/00-base.conf -> /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf -> /etc/sysconfig/httpd -> -> 相似地，我们可以列出所有相关的文档文件，如下： -> -> # rpm -qd httpd -> -> /usr/share/doc/httpd/ABOUT_APACHE -> /usr/share/doc/httpd/CHANGES -> /usr/share/doc/httpd/LICENSE -> ... -> -> 我们也可以列出所有相关的证书文件，如下： -> -> # rpm -qL openssh -> -> /usr/share/licenses/openssh/LICENCE -> -> 忘了说明上面的选项 -d 和 -L 分别表示 “文档” 和 “证书”，抱歉。 - -### 7. 你进入了一个配置文件，位于‘/usr/share/alsa/cards/AACI.conf’，现在你不确定该文件属于哪个包。你如何查找出包的名字？ ### - -> **回答**：当一个包被安装后，相关的信息就存储在了数据库里。所以使用选项 -qf（-f 查询包拥有的文件）很容易追踪谁提供了上述的包。 -> -> # rpm -qf /usr/share/alsa/cards/AACI.conf -> alsa-lib-1.0.28-2.el7.x86_64 -> -> 类似地，我们可以查找（谁提供的）关于任何子包，文档和证书文件的信息。 - -### 8. 你如何使用 rpm 查找最近安装的软件列表？ ### - -> **回答**：如刚刚说的，每一样被安装的文件都记录在了数据库里。所以这并不难，通过查询 rpm 的数据库，找到最近安装软件的列表。 -> -> 我们通过运行下面的命令，使用选项 -last（打印出最近安装的软件）达到目的。 -> -> # rpm -qa --last -> -> 上面的命令会打印出所有安装的软件，最近一次安装的软件在列表的顶部。 -> -> 如果我们关心的是找出特定的包，我们可以使用 grep 命令从列表中匹配包（假设是 sqlite ），简单如下： -> -> # rpm -qa --last | grep -i sqlite -> -> sqlite-3.8.10.2-1.fc22.x86_64 Thursday 18 June 2015 05:05:43 PM IST -> -> 我们也可以获得10个最近安装的软件列表，简单如下： -> -> # rpm -qa --last | head -> -> 我们可以重定义一下，输出想要的结果，简单如下： -> -> # rpm -qa --last | head -n 2 -> -> 上面的命令中，-n 代表数目，后面接一个常数值。该命令是打印2个最近安装的软件的列表。 - -### 9. 安装一个包之前，你如果要检查其依赖。你会怎么做？ ### - -> **回答**：检查一个 rpm 包（XYZ.rpm）的依赖，我们可以使用选项 -q（查询包），-p（指定包名）和 -R（查询/列出该包依赖的包，嗯，就是依赖）。 -> -> # rpm -qpR gedit-3.16.1-1.fc22.i686.rpm -> -> /bin/sh -> /usr/bin/env -> glib2(x86-32) >= 2.40.0 -> gsettings-desktop-schemas -> gtk3(x86-32) >= 3.16 -> gtksourceview3(x86-32) >= 3.16 -> gvfs -> libX11.so.6 -> ... - -### 10. rpm 是不是一个前端的包管理工具呢？ ### - -> **回答**：不是！rpm 是一个后端管理工具，适用于基于 Linux 发行版的 RPM （此处指 Redhat Package Management）。 -> -> [YUM][1]，全称 Yellowdog Updater Modified，是一个 RPM 的前端工具。YUM 命令自动完成所有工作，包括解决依赖和其他一切事务。 -> -> 最近，[DNF][2]（YUM命令升级版）在Fedora 22发行版中取代了 YUM。尽管 YUM 仍然可以在 RHEL 和 CentOS 平台使用，我们也可以安装 dnf，与 YUM 命令共存使用。据说 DNF 较于 YUM 有很多提高。 -> -> 知道更多总是好的，保持自我更新。现在我们移步到前端部分来谈谈。 - -### 11. 你如何列出一个系统上面所有可用的仓库列表。 ### - -> **回答**：简单地使用下面的命令，我们就可以列出一个系统上所有可用的仓库列表。 -> -> # yum repolist -> 或 -> # dnf repolist -> -> Last metadata expiration check performed 0:30:03 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. -> repo id repo name status -> *fedora Fedora 22 - x86_64 44,762 -> ozonos Repository for Ozon OS 61 -> *updates Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Updates -> -> 上面的命令仅会列出可用的仓库。如果你需要列出所有的仓库，不管可用与否，可以这样做。 -> -> # yum repolist all -> or -> # dnf repolist all -> -> Last metadata expiration check performed 0:29:45 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. -> repo id repo name status -> *fedora Fedora 22 - x86_64 enabled: 44,762 -> fedora-debuginfo Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Debug disabled -> fedora-source Fedora 22 - Source disabled -> ozonos Repository for Ozon OS enabled: 61 -> *updates Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Updates enabled: 5,018 -> updates-debuginfo Fedora 22 - x86_64 - Updates - Debug - -### 12. 你如何列出一个系统上所有可用并且安装了的包？ ### - -> **回答**：列出一个系统上所有可用的包，我们可以这样做： -> -> # yum list available -> 或 -> # dnf list available -> -> ast metadata expiration check performed 0:34:09 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. -> Available Packages -> 0ad.x86_64 0.0.18-1.fc22 fedora -> 0ad-data.noarch 0.0.18-1.fc22 fedora -> 0install.x86_64 2.6.1-2.fc21 fedora -> 0xFFFF.x86_64 0.3.9-11.fc22 fedora -> 2048-cli.x86_64 0.9-4.git20141214.723738c.fc22 fedora -> 2048-cli-nocurses.x86_64 0.9-4.git20141214.723738c.fc22 fedora -> .... -> -> 而列出一个系统上所有已安装的包，我们可以这样做。 -> -> # yum list installed -> or -> # dnf list installed -> -> Last metadata expiration check performed 0:34:30 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. -> Installed Packages -> GeoIP.x86_64 1.6.5-1.fc22 @System -> GeoIP-GeoLite-data.noarch 2015.05-1.fc22 @System -> NetworkManager.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System -> NetworkManager-libnm.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System -> aajohan-comfortaa-fonts.noarch 2.004-4.fc22 @System -> .... -> -> 而要同时满足两个要求的时候，我们可以这样做。 -> -> # yum list -> 或 -> # dnf list -> -> Last metadata expiration check performed 0:32:56 ago on Mon Jun 22 16:50:00 2015. -> Installed Packages -> GeoIP.x86_64 1.6.5-1.fc22 @System -> GeoIP-GeoLite-data.noarch 2015.05-1.fc22 @System -> NetworkManager.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System -> NetworkManager-libnm.x86_64 1:1.0.2-1.fc22 @System -> aajohan-comfortaa-fonts.noarch 2.004-4.fc22 @System -> acl.x86_64 2.2.52-7.fc22 @System -> .... - -### 13. 你会怎么分别安装和升级一个包与一组包，在一个系统上面使用 YUM/DNF？ ### - -> **回答**：安装一个包（假设是 nano），我们可以这样做， -> -> # yum install nano -> -> 而安装一组包（假设是 Haskell），我们可以这样做， -> -> # yum groupinstall 'haskell' -> -> 升级一个包（还是 nano），我们可以这样做， -> -> # yum update nano -> -> 而为了升级一组包（还是 haskell），我们可以这样做， -> -> # yum groupupdate 'haskell' - -### 14. 你会如何同步一个系统上面的所有安装软件到稳定发行版？ ### - -> **回答**：我们可以一个系统上（假设是 CentOS 或者 Fedora）的所有包到稳定发行版，如下， -> -> # yum distro-sync [On CentOS/ RHEL] -> 或 -> # dnf distro-sync [On Fedora 20之后版本] - -似乎来面试之前你做了相当不多的功课，很好！在进一步交谈前，我还想问一两个问题。 - -### 15. 你对 YUM 本地仓库熟悉吗？你尝试过建立一个本地 YUM 仓库吗？让我们简单看看你会怎么建立一个本地 YUM 仓库。 ### - -> **回答**：首先，感谢你的夸奖。回到问题，我必须承认我对本地 YUM 仓库十分熟悉，并且在我的本地主机上也部署过，作为测试用。 -> -> 1. 为了建立本地 YUM 仓库，我们需要安装下面三个包： -> -> # yum install deltarpm python-deltarpm createrepo -> -> 2. 新建一个目录(假设 /home/$USER/rpm)，然后复制 RedHat/CentOS DVD 上的 RPM 包到这个文件夹下 -> -> # mkdir /home/$USER/rpm -> # cp /path/to/rpm/on/DVD/*.rpm /home/$USER/rpm -> -> 3. 新建基本的库头文件如下。 -> -> # createrepo -v /home/$USER/rpm -> -> 4. 在路径 /etc/yum.repo.d 下创建一个 .repo 文件（如 abc.repo): -> -> cd /etc/yum.repos.d && cat << EOF > abc.repo -> [local-installation]name=yum-local -> baseurl=file:///home/$USER/rpm -> enabled=1 -> gpgcheck=0 -> EOF - -**重要**：用你的用户名替换掉 $USER。 - -以上就是创建一个本地 YUM 仓库所要做的全部工作。我们现在可以从这里安装软件了，相对快一些，安全一些，并且最重要的是不需要 Internet 连接。 - -好了！面试过程很愉快。我已经问完了。我会将你推荐给 HR。你是一个年轻且十分聪明的候选者，我们很愿意你加入进来。如果你有任何问题，你可以问我。 - -**我**：谢谢，这确实是一次愉快的面试，我感到非常幸运今天，然后这次面试就毁了。。。 - -显然，不会在这里结束。我问了很多问题，比如他们正在做的项目。我会担任什么角色，负责什么，，，balabalabala - -小伙伴们，3天以前 HR 轮的所有问题到时候也会被写成文档。希望我当时表现不错。感谢你们所有的祝福。 - -谢谢伙伴们和 Tecmint，花时间来编辑我的面试经历。我相信 Tecmint 好伙伴们做了很大的努力，必要要赞一个。当我们与他人分享我们的经历的时候，其他人从我们这里知道了更多，而我们自己则发现了自己的不足。 - -这增加了我们的信心。如果你最近也有任何类似的面试经历，别自己蔵着。分享出来！让我们所有人都知道。你可以使用如下的格式来与我们分享你的经历。 - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/linux-rpm-package-management-interview-questions/ - -作者：[Avishek Kumar][a] -译者：[wi-cuckoo](https://github.com/wi-cuckoo) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/avishek/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/20-linux-yum-yellowdog-updater-modified-commands-for-package-mangement/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/dnf-commands-for-fedora-rpm-package-management/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150730 Howto Configure Nginx as Rreverse Proxy or Load Balancer with Weave and Docker.md b/translated/tech/20150730 Howto Configure Nginx as Rreverse Proxy or Load Balancer with Weave and Docker.md deleted file mode 100644 index f90a1ce76d..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/20150730 Howto Configure Nginx as Rreverse Proxy or Load Balancer with Weave and Docker.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,126 +0,0 @@ -如何使用Weave以及Docker搭建Nginx反向代理/负载均衡服务器 -================================================================================ -Hi, 今天我们将会学习如何使用如何使用Weave和Docker搭建Nginx反向代理/负载均衡服务器。Weave创建一个虚拟网络将跨主机部署的Docker容器连接在一起并使它们自动暴露给外部世界。它让我们更加专注于应用的开发，而不是基础架构。Weave提供了一个如此棒的环境，仿佛它的所有容器都属于同个网络，不需要端口/映射/连接等的配置。容器中的应用提供的服务在weave网络中可以轻易地被外部世界访问，不论你的容器运行在哪里。在这个教程里我们将会使用weave快速并且轻易地将nginx web服务器部署为一个负载均衡器，反向代理一个运行在Amazon Web Services里面多个节点上的docker容器中的简单php应用。这里我们将会介绍WeaveDNS,它提供一个简单的方式让容器利用主机名找到彼此，不需要改变代码，并且能够告诉其他容器连接到这些主机名。 - -在这篇教程里，我们需要一个运行的容器集合来配置nginx负载均衡服务器。最简单轻松的方法就是使用Weave在ubuntu的docker容器中搭建nginx负载均衡服务器。 - -### 1. 搭建AWS实例 ### - -首先，我们需要搭建Amzaon Web Service实例，这样才能在ubuntu下用weave跑docker容器。我们将会使用[AWS CLI][1]来搭建和配置两个AWS EC2实例。在这里，我们使用最小的有效实例，t1.micro。我们需要一个有效的**Amazon Web Services账户**用以AWS命令行界面的搭建和配置。我们先在AWS命令行界面下使用下面的命令将github上的weave仓库克隆下来。 - - $ git clone http://github.com/fintanr/weave-gs - $ cd weave-gs/aws-nginx-ubuntu-simple - -在克隆完仓库之后，我们执行下面的脚本，这个脚本将会部署两个t1.micro实例，每个实例中都是ubuntu作为操作系统并用weave跑着docker容器。 - - $ sudo ./demo-aws-setup.sh - -在这里，我们将会在以后用到这些实例的IP地址。这些地址储存在一个weavedemo.env文件中，这个文件在执行demo-aws-setup.sh脚本的期间被创建。为了获取这些IP地址，我们需要执行下面的命令，命令输出类似下面的信息。 - - $ cat weavedemo.env - - export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1=52.26.175.175 - export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST2=52.26.83.141 - export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOSTCOUNT=2 - export WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOSTS=(52.26.175.175 52.26.83.141) - -请注意这些不是固定的IP地址，AWS会为我们的实例动态地分配IP地址。 - -我们在bash下执行下面的命令使环境变量生效。 - - . ./weavedemo.env - -### 2. 启动Weave and WeaveDNS ### - -在安装完实例之后，我们将会在每台主机上启动weave以及weavedns。Weave以及weavedns使得我们能够轻易地将容器部署到一个全新的基础架构以及配置中， 不需要改变代码，也不需要去理解像Ambassador容器以及Link机制之类的概念。下面是在第一台主机上启动weave以及weavedns的命令。 - - ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 - $ sudo weave launch - $ sudo weave launch-dns 10.2.1.1/24 - -下一步，我也准备在第二台主机上启动weave以及weavedns。 - - ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST2 - $ sudo weave launch $WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 - $ sudo weave launch-dns 10.2.1.2/24 - -### 3. 启动应用容器 ### - -现在，我们准备跨两台主机启动六个容器，这两台主机都用Apache2 Web服务实例跑着简单的php网站。为了在第一个Apache2 Web服务器实例跑三个容器， 我们将会使用下面的命令。 - - ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 - $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.1/24 -h ws1.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache - $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.2/24 -h ws2.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache - $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.3/24 -h ws3.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache - -在那之后，我们将会在第二个实例上启动另外三个容器，请使用下面的命令。 - - ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST2 - $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.4/24 -h ws4.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache - $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.5/24 -h ws5.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache - $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.6/24 -h ws6.weave.local fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-apache - -注意: 在这里，--with-dns选项告诉容器使用weavedns来解析主机名，-h x.weave.local则使得weavedns能够解析指定主机。 - -### 4. 启动Nginx容器 ### - -在应用容器运行得有如意料中的稳定之后，我们将会启动nginx容器，它将会在六个应用容器服务之间轮询并提供反向代理或者负载均衡。 为了启动nginx容器，请使用下面的命令。 - - ssh -i weavedemo-key.pem ubuntu@$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1 - $ sudo weave run --with-dns 10.3.1.7/24 -ti -h nginx.weave.local -d -p 80:80 fintanr/weave-gs-nginx-simple - -因此，我们的nginx容器在$WEAVE_AWS_DEMO_HOST1上公开地暴露成为一个http服务器。 - -### 5. 测试负载均衡服务器 ### - -为了测试我们的负载均衡服务器是否可以工作，我们执行一段可以发送http请求给nginx容器的脚本。我们将会发送6个请求，这样我们就能看到nginx在一次的轮询中服务于每台web服务器之间。 - - $ ./access-aws-hosts.sh - - { - "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", - "hostname" : "ws1.weave.local", - "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" - } - { - "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", - "hostname" : "ws2.weave.local", - "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" - } - { - "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", - "hostname" : "ws3.weave.local", - "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" - } - { - "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", - "hostname" : "ws4.weave.local", - "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" - } - { - "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", - "hostname" : "ws5.weave.local", - "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" - } - { - "message" : "Hello Weave - nginx example", - "hostname" : "ws6.weave.local", - "date" : "2015-06-26 12:24:23" - } - -### 结束语 ### - -我们最终成功地将nginx配置成一个反向代理/负载均衡服务器，通过使用weave以及运行在AWS（Amazon Web Service）EC2之中的ubuntu服务器里面的docker。从上面的步骤输出可以清楚的看到我们已经成功地配置了nginx。我们可以看到请求在一次循环中被发送到6个应用容器，这些容器在Apache2 Web服务器中跑着PHP应用。在这里，我们部署了一个容器化的PHP应用，使用nginx横跨多台在AWS EC2上的主机而不需要改变代码，利用weavedns使得每个容器连接在一起，只需要主机名就够了，眼前的这些便捷， 都要归功于weave以及weavedns。 如果你有任何的问题、建议、反馈，请在评论中注明，这样我们才能够做得更好，谢谢:-） - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://linoxide.com/linux-how-to/nginx-load-balancer-weave-docker/ - -作者：[Arun Pyasi][a] -译者：[dingdongnigetou](https://github.com/dingdongnigetou) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/arunp/ -[1]:http://console.aws.amazon.com/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150803 Managing Linux Logs.md b/translated/tech/20150803 Managing Linux Logs.md deleted file mode 100644 index 59b41aa831..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/20150803 Managing Linux Logs.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,418 +0,0 @@ -Linux日志管理 -================================================================================ -管理日志的一个关键典型做法是集中或整合你的日志到一个地方，特别是如果你有许多服务器或多层级架构。我们将告诉你为什么这是一个好主意然后给出如何更容易的做这件事的一些小技巧。 - -### 集中管理日志的好处 ### - -如果你有很多服务器，查看单独的一个日志文件可能会很麻烦。现代的网站和服务经常包括许多服务器层级，分布式的负载均衡器，还有更多。这将花费很长时间去获取正确的日志，甚至花更长时间在登录服务器的相关问题上。没什么比发现你找的信息没有被捕获更沮丧的了，或者本能保留答案时正好在重启后丢失了日志文件。 - -集中你的日志使他们查找更快速，可以帮助你更快速的解决产品问题。你不用猜测那个服务器存在问题，因为所有的日志在同一个地方。此外，你可以使用更强大的工具去分析他们，包括日志管理解决方案。一些解决方案能[转换纯文本日志][1]为一些字段，更容易查找和分析。 - -集中你的日志也可以是他们更易于管理： - -- 他们更安全，当他们备份归档一个单独区域时意外或者有意的丢失。如果你的服务器宕机或者无响应，你可以使用集中的日志去调试问题。 -- 你不用担心ssh或者低效的grep命令需要更多的资源在陷入困境的系统。 -- 你不用担心磁盘占满，这个能让你的服务器死机。 -- 你能保持你的产品服务安全性，只是为了查看日志无需给你所有团队登录权限。给你的团队从中心区域访问日志权限更安全。 - -随着集中日志管理，你仍需处理由于网络联通性不好或者用尽大量网络带宽导致不能传输日志到中心区域的风险。在下面的章节我们将要讨论如何聪明的解决这些问题。 - -### 流行的日志归集工具 ### - -在Linux上最常见的日志归集是通过使用系统日志守护进程或者代理。系统日志守护进程支持本地日志的采集，然后通过系统日志协议传输日志到中心服务器。你可以使用很多流行的守护进程来归集你的日志文件： - -- [rsyslog][2]是一个轻量后台程序在大多数Linux分支上已经安装。 -- [syslog-ng][3]是第二流行的Linux系统日志后台程序。 -- [logstash][4]是一个重量级的代理，他可以做更多高级加工和分析。 -- [fluentd][5]是另一个有高级处理能力的代理。 - -Rsyslog是集中日志数据最流行的后台程序因为他在大多数Linux分支上是被默认安装的。你不用下载或安装它，并且它是轻量的，所以不需要占用你太多的系统资源。 - -如果你需要更多先进的过滤或者自定义分析功能，如果你不在乎额外的系统封装Logstash是下一个最流行的选择。 - -### 配置Rsyslog.conf ### - -既然rsyslog成为最广泛使用的系统日志程序，我们将展示如何配置它为日志中心。全局配置文件位于/etc/rsyslog.conf。它加载模块，设置全局指令，和包含应用特有文件位于目录/etc/rsyslog.d中。这些目录包含/etc/rsyslog.d/50-default.conf命令rsyslog写系统日志到文件。在[rsyslog文档][6]你可以阅读更多相关配置。 - -rsyslog配置语言是是[RainerScript][7]。你建立特定的日志输入就像输出他们到另一个目标。Rsyslog已经配置为系统日志输入的默认标准，所以你通常只需增加一个输出到你的日志服务器。这里有一个rsyslog输出到一个外部服务器的配置例子。在举例中，**BEBOP**是一个服务器的主机名，所以你应该替换为你的自己的服务器名。 - - action(type="omfwd" protocol="tcp" target="BEBOP" port="514") - -你可以发送你的日志到一个有丰富存储的日志服务器来存储，提供查询，备份和分析。如果你正存储日志在文件系统，然后你应该建立[日志转储][8]来防止你的磁盘报满。 - -作为一种选择，你可以发送这些日志到一个日志管理方案。如果你的解决方案是安装在本地你可以发送到您的本地系统文档中指定主机和端口。如果你使用基于云提供商，你将发送他们到你的提供商特定的主机名和端口。 - -### 日志目录 ### - -你可以归集一个目录或者匹配一个通配符模式的所有文件。nxlog和syslog-ng程序支持目录和通配符(*)。 - -rsyslog的通用形式不支持直接的监控目录。一种解决方案，你可以设置一个定时任务去监控这个目录的新文件，然后配置rsyslog来发送这些文件到目的地，比如你的日志管理系统。作为一个例子，日志管理提供商Loggly有一个开源版本的[目录监控脚本][9]。 - -### 哪个协议: UDP, TCP, or RELP? ### - -当你使用网络传输数据时，你可以选择三个主流的协议。UDP在你自己的局域网是最常用的，TCP是用在互联网。如果你不能失去日志，就要使用更高级的RELP协议。 - -[UDP][10]发送一个数据包，那只是一个简单的包信息。它是一个只外传的协议，所以他不发送给你回执（ACK）。它只尝试发送包。当网络拥堵时，UDP通常会巧妙的降级或者丢弃日志。它通常使用在类似局域网的可靠网络。 - -[TCP][11]通过多个包和返回确认发送流信息。TCP会多次尝试发送数据包，但是受限于[TCP缓存][12]大小。这是在互联网上发送送日志最常用的协议。 - -[RELP][13]是这三个协议中最可靠的，但是它是为rsyslog创建而且很少有行业应用。它在应用层接收数据然后再发出是否有错误。确认你的目标也支持这个协议。 - -### 用磁盘辅助队列可靠的传送 ### - -如果rsyslog在存储日志时遭遇错误，例如一个不可用网络连接，他能将日志排队直到连接还原。队列日志默认被存储在内存里。无论如何，内存是有限的并且如果问题仍然存在，日志会超出内存容量。 - -**警告：如果你只存储日志到内存，你可能会失去数据。** - -Rsyslog能在内存被占满时将日志队列放到磁盘。[磁盘辅助队列][14]使日志的传输更可靠。这里有一个例子如何配置rsyslog的磁盘辅助队列： - - $WorkDirectory /var/spool/rsyslog # where to place spool files - $ActionQueueFileName fwdRule1 # unique name prefix for spool files - $ActionQueueMaxDiskSpace 1g # 1gb space limit (use as much as possible) - $ActionQueueSaveOnShutdown on # save messages to disk on shutdown - $ActionQueueType LinkedList # run asynchronously - $ActionResumeRetryCount -1 # infinite retries if host is down - -### 使用TLS加密日志 ### - -当你的安全隐私数据是一个关心的事，你应该考虑加密你的日志。如果你使用纯文本在互联网传输日志，嗅探器和中间人可以读到你的日志。如果日志包含私人信息、敏感的身份数据或者政府管制数据，你应该加密你的日志。rsyslog程序能使用TLS协议加密你的日志保证你的数据更安全。 - -建立TLS加密，你应该做如下任务： - -1. 生成一个[证书授权][15](CA)。在/contrib/gnutls有一些简单的证书，只是有助于测试，但是你需要创建自己的产品证书。如果你正在使用一个日志管理服务，它将有一个证书给你。 -1. 为你的服务器生成一个[数字证书][16]使它能SSL运算，或者使用你自己的日志管理服务提供商的一个数字证书。 -1. 配置你的rsyslog程序来发送TLS加密数据到你的日志管理系统。 - -这有一个rsyslog配置TLS加密的例子。替换CERT和DOMAIN_NAME为你自己的服务器配置。 - - $DefaultNetstreamDriverCAFile /etc/rsyslog.d/keys/ca.d/CERT.crt - $ActionSendStreamDriver gtls - $ActionSendStreamDriverMode 1 - $ActionSendStreamDriverAuthMode x509/name - $ActionSendStreamDriverPermittedPeer *.DOMAIN_NAME.com - -### 应用日志的最佳管理方法 ### - -除Linux默认创建的日志之外，归集重要的应用日志也是一个好主意。几乎所有基于Linux的服务器的应用把他们的状态信息写入到独立专门的日志文件。这包括数据库产品，像PostgreSQL或者MySQL，网站服务器像Nginx或者Apache，防火墙，打印和文件共享服务还有DNS服务等等。 - -管理员要做的第一件事是安装一个应用后配置它。Linux应用程序典型的有一个.conf文件在/etc目录里。它也可能在其他地方，但是那是大家找配置文件首先会看的地方。 - -根据应用程序有多复杂多庞大，可配置参数的数量可能会很少或者上百行。如前所述，大多数应用程序可能会在某种日志文件写他们的状态：配置文件是日志设置的地方定义了其他的东西。 - -如果你不确定它在哪，你可以使用locate命令去找到它： - - [root@localhost ~]# locate postgresql.conf - /usr/pgsql-9.4/share/postgresql.conf.sample - /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/postgresql.conf - -#### 设置一个日志文件的标准位置 #### - -Linux系统一般保存他们的日志文件在/var/log目录下。如果是，很好，如果不是，你也许想在/var/log下创建一个专用目录？为什么？因为其他程序也在/var/log下保存他们的日志文件，如果你的应用报错多于一个日志文件 - 也许每天一个或者每次重启一个 - 通过这么大的目录也许有点难于搜索找到你想要的文件。 - -如果你有多于一个的应用实例在你网络运行，这个方法依然便利。想想这样的情景，你也许有一打web服务器在你的网络运行。当排查任何一个盒子的问题，你将知道确切的位置。 - -#### 使用一个标准的文件名 #### - -给你的应用最新的日志使用一个标准的文件名。这使一些事变得容易，因为你可以监控和追踪一个单独的文件。很多应用程序在他们的日志上追加一种时间戳。他让rsyslog更难于找到最新的文件和设置文件监控。一个更好的方法是使用日志转储增加时间戳到老的日志文件。这样更易去归档和历史查询。 - -#### 追加日志文件 #### - -日志文件会在每个应用程序重启后被覆盖？如果这样，我们建议关掉它。每次重启app后应该去追加日志文件。这样，你就可以追溯重启前最后的日志。 - -#### 日志文件追加 vs. 转储 #### - -虽然应用程序每次重启后写一个新日志文件，如何保存当前日志？追加到一个单独文件，巨大的文件？Linux系统不是因频繁重启或者崩溃出名的：应用程序可以运行很长时间甚至不间歇，但是也会使日志文件非常大。如果你查询分析上周发生连接错误的原因，你可能无疑的要在成千上万行里搜索。 - -我们建议你配置应用每天半晚转储它的日志文件。 - -为什么？首先它将变得可管理。找一个有特定日期部分的文件名比遍历一个文件指定日期的条目更容易。文件也小的多：你不用考虑当你打开一个日志文件时vi僵住。第二，如果你正发送日志到另一个位置 - 也许每晚备份任务拷贝到归集日志服务器 - 这样不会消耗你的网络带宽。最后第三点，这样帮助你做日志保持。如果你想剔除旧的日志记录，这样删除超过指定日期的文件比一个应用解析一个大文件更容易。 - -#### 日志文件的保持 #### - -你保留你的日志文件多长时间？这绝对可以归结为业务需求。你可能被要求保持一个星期的日志信息，或者管理要求保持一年的数据。无论如何，日志需要在一个时刻或其他从服务器删除。 - -在我们看来，除非必要，只在线保持最近一个月的日志文件，加上拷贝他们到第二个地方如日志服务器。任何比这更旧的日志可以被转到一个单独的介质上。例如，如果你在AWS上，你的旧日志可以被拷贝到Glacier。 - -#### 给日志单独的磁盘分区 #### - -Linux最典型的方式通常建议挂载到/var目录到一个单独度的文件系统。这是因为这个目录的高I/Os。我们推荐挂在/var/log目录到一个单独的磁盘系统下。这样可以节省与主应用的数据I/O竞争。另外，如果一些日志文件变的太多，或者一个文件变的太大，不会占满整个磁盘。 - -#### 日志条目 #### - -每个日志条目什么信息应该被捕获？ - -这依赖于你想用日志来做什么。你只想用它来排除故障，或者你想捕获所有发生的事？这是一个规则条件去捕获每个用户在运行什么或查看什么？ - -如果你正用日志做错误排查的目的，只保存错误，报警或者致命信息。没有理由去捕获调试信息，例如，应用也许默认记录了调试信息或者另一个管理员也许为了故障排查使用打开了调试信息，但是你应该关闭它，因为它肯定会很快的填满空间。在最低限度上，捕获日期，时间，客户端应用名，原ip或者客户端主机名，执行动作和它自身信息。 - -#### 一个PostgreSQL的实例 #### - -作为一个例子，让我们看看vanilla（这是一个开源论坛）PostgreSQL 9.4安装主配置文件。它叫做postgresql.conf与其他Linux系统中的配置文件不同，他不保存在/etc目录下。在代码段下，我们可以在我们的Centos 7服务器的/var/lib/pgsql目录下看见： - - root@localhost ~]# vi /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/postgresql.conf - ... - #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - # ERROR REPORTING AND LOGGING - #------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - # - Where to Log - - log_destination = 'stderr' - # Valid values are combinations of - # stderr, csvlog, syslog, and eventlog, - # depending on platform. csvlog - # requires logging_collector to be on. - # This is used when logging to stderr: - logging_collector = on - # Enable capturing of stderr and csvlog - # into log files. Required to be on for - # csvlogs. - # (change requires restart) - # These are only used if logging_collector is on: - log_directory = 'pg_log' - # directory where log files are written, - # can be absolute or relative to PGDATA - log_filename = 'postgresql-%a.log' # log file name pattern, - # can include strftime() escapes - # log_file_mode = 0600 . - # creation mode for log files, - # begin with 0 to use octal notation - log_truncate_on_rotation = on # If on, an existing log file with the - # same name as the new log file will be - # truncated rather than appended to. - # But such truncation only occurs on - # time-driven rotation, not on restarts - # or size-driven rotation. Default is - # off, meaning append to existing files - # in all cases. - log_rotation_age = 1d - # Automatic rotation of logfiles will happen after that time. 0 disables. - log_rotation_size = 0 # Automatic rotation of logfiles will happen after that much log output. 0 disables. - # These are relevant when logging to syslog: - #syslog_facility = 'LOCAL0' - #syslog_ident = 'postgres' - # This is only relevant when logging to eventlog (win32): - #event_source = 'PostgreSQL' - # - When to Log - - #client_min_messages = notice # values in order of decreasing detail: - # debug5 - # debug4 - # debug3 - # debug2 - # debug1 - # log - # notice - # warning - # error - #log_min_messages = warning # values in order of decreasing detail: - # debug5 - # debug4 - # debug3 - # debug2 - # debug1 - # info - # notice - # warning - # error - # log - # fatal - # panic - #log_min_error_statement = error # values in order of decreasing detail: - # debug5 - # debug4 - # debug3 - # debug2 - # debug1 - # info - # notice - # warning - # error - # log - # fatal - # panic (effectively off) - #log_min_duration_statement = -1 # -1 is disabled, 0 logs all statements - # and their durations, > 0 logs only - # statements running at least this number - # of milliseconds - # - What to Log - #debug_print_parse = off - #debug_print_rewritten = off - #debug_print_plan = off - #debug_pretty_print = on - #log_checkpoints = off - #log_connections = off - #log_disconnections = off - #log_duration = off - #log_error_verbosity = default - # terse, default, or verbose messages - #log_hostname = off - log_line_prefix = '< %m >' # special values: - # %a = application name - # %u = user name - # %d = database name - # %r = remote host and port - # %h = remote host - # %p = process ID - # %t = timestamp without milliseconds - # %m = timestamp with milliseconds - # %i = command tag - # %e = SQL state - # %c = session ID - # %l = session line number - # %s = session start timestamp - # %v = virtual transaction ID - # %x = transaction ID (0 if none) - # %q = stop here in non-session - # processes - # %% = '%' - # e.g. '<%u%%%d> ' - #log_lock_waits = off # log lock waits >= deadlock_timeout - #log_statement = 'none' # none, ddl, mod, all - #log_temp_files = -1 # log temporary files equal or larger - # than the specified size in kilobytes;5# -1 disables, 0 logs all temp files5 - log_timezone = 'Australia/ACT' - -虽然大多数参数被加上了注释，他们呈现了默认数值。我们可以看见日志文件目录是pg_log（log_directory参数），文件名应该以postgresql开头（log_filename参数），文件每天转储一次（log_rotation_age参数）然后日志记录以时间戳开头（log_line_prefix参数）。特别说明有趣的是log_line_prefix参数：你可以包含很多整体丰富的信息在这。 - -看/var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/pg_log目录下展现给我们这些文件： - - [root@localhost ~]# ls -l /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/pg_log - total 20 - -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 1212 May 1 20:11 postgresql-Fri.log - -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 243 Feb 9 21:49 postgresql-Mon.log - -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 1138 Feb 7 11:08 postgresql-Sat.log - -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 1203 Feb 26 21:32 postgresql-Thu.log - -rw-------. 1 postgres postgres 326 Feb 10 01:20 postgresql-Tue.log - -所以日志文件命只有工作日命名的标签。我们可以改变他。如何做？在postgresql.conf配置log_filename参数。 - -查看一个日志内容，它的条目仅以日期时间开头： - - [root@localhost ~]# cat /var/lib/pgsql/9.4/data/pg_log/postgresql-Fri.log - ... - < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.020 EST >LOG: received fast shutdown request - < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.025 EST >LOG: aborting any active transactions - < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.026 EST >LOG: autovacuum launcher shutting down - < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.036 EST >LOG: shutting down - < 2015-02-27 01:21:27.211 EST >LOG: database system is shut down - -### 集中应用日志 ### - -#### 使用Imfile监控日志 #### - -习惯上，应用通常记录他们数据在文件里。文件容易在一个机器上寻找但是多台服务器上就不是很恰当了。你可以设置日志文件监控然后当新的日志被添加到底部就发送事件到一个集中服务器。在/etc/rsyslog.d/里创建一个新的配置文件然后增加一个文件输入，像这样： - - $ModLoad imfile - $InputFilePollInterval 10 - $PrivDropToGroup adm - ----------- - - # Input for FILE1 - $InputFileName /FILE1 - $InputFileTag APPNAME1 - $InputFileStateFile stat-APPNAME1 #this must be unique for each file being polled - $InputFileSeverity info - $InputFilePersistStateInterval 20000 - $InputRunFileMonitor - -替换FILE1和APPNAME1位你自己的文件和应用名称。Rsyslog将发送它到你配置的输出中。 - -#### 本地套接字日志与Imuxsock #### - -套接字类似UNIX文件句柄,所不同的是套接字内容是由系统日志程序读取到内存中,然后发送到目的地。没有文件需要被写入。例如，logger命令发送他的日志到这个UNIX套接字。 - -如果你的服务器I/O有限或者你不需要本地文件日志，这个方法使系统资源有效利用。这个方法缺点是套接字有队列大小的限制。如果你的系统日志程序宕掉或者不能保持运行，然后你可能会丢失日志数据。 - -rsyslog程序将默认从/dev/log套接字中种读取，但是你要用[imuxsock输入模块][17]如下命令使它生效： - - $ModLoad imuxsock - -#### UDP日志与Imupd #### - -一些应用程序使用UDP格式输出日志数据，这是在网络上或者本地传输日志文件的标准系统日志协议。你的系统日志程序收集这些日志然后处理他们或者用不同的格式传输他们。交替地，你可以发送日志到你的日志服务器或者到一个日志管理方案中。 - -使用如下命令配置rsyslog来接收标准端口514的UDP系统日志数据： - - $ModLoad imudp - ----------- - - $UDPServerRun 514 - -### 用Logrotate管理日志 ### - -日志转储是当日志到达指定的时期时自动归档日志文件的方法。如果不介入，日志文件一直增长，会用尽磁盘空间。最后他们将破坏你的机器。 - -logrotate实例能随着日志的日期截取你的日志，腾出空间。你的新日志文件保持文件名。你的旧日志文件被重命名为后缀加上数字。每次logrotate实例运行，一个新文件被建立然后现存的文件被逐一重命名。你来决定何时旧文件被删除或归档的阈值。 - -当logrotate拷贝一个文件，新的文件已经有一个新的索引节点，这会妨碍rsyslog监控新文件。你可以通过增加copytruncate参数到你的logrotate定时任务来缓解这个问题。这个参数拷贝现有的日志文件内容到新文件然后从现有文件截短这些内容。这个索引节点从不改变，因为日志文件自己保持不变；它的内容是一个新文件。 - -logrotate实例使用的主配置文件是/etc/logrotate.conf，应用特有设置在/etc/logrotate.d/目录下。DigitalOcean有一个详细的[logrotate教程][18] - -### 管理很多服务器的配置 ### - -当你只有很少的服务器，你可以登陆上去手动配置。一旦你有几打或者更多服务器，你可以用高级工具使这变得更容易和更可扩展。基本上，所有的事情就是拷贝你的rsyslog配置到每个服务器，然后重启rsyslog使更改生效。 - -#### Pssh #### - -这个工具可以让你在很多服务器上并行的运行一个ssh命令。使用pssh部署只有一小部分的服务器。如果你其中一个服务器失败，然后你必须ssh到失败的服务器，然后手动部署。如果你有很多服务器失败，那么手动部署他们会话费很长时间。 - -#### Puppet/Chef #### - -Puppet和Chef是两个不同的工具，他们能在你的网络按你规定的标准自动的配置所有服务器。他们的报表工具使你知道关于错误然后定期重新同步。Puppet和Chef有一些狂热的支持者。如果你不确定那个更适合你的部署配置管理，你可以领会一下[InfoWorld上这两个工具的对比][19] - -一些厂商也提供一些配置rsyslog的模块或者方法。这有一个Loggly上Puppet模块的例子。它提供给rsyslog一个类，你可以添加一个标识令牌： - - node 'my_server_node.example.net' { - # Send syslog events to Loggly - class { 'loggly::rsyslog': - customer_token => 'de7b5ccd-04de-4dc4-fbc9-501393600000', - } - } - -#### Docker #### - -Docker使用容器去运行应用不依赖底层服务。所有东西都从内部的容器运行，你可以想象为一个单元功能。ZDNet有一个深入文章关于在你的数据中心[使用Docker][20]。 - -这有很多方式从Docker容器记录日志，包括链接到一个日志容器，记录到一个共享卷，或者直接在容器里添加一个系统日志代理。其中最流行的日志容器叫做[logspout][21]。 - -#### 供应商的脚本或代理 #### - -大多数日志管理方案提供一些脚本或者代理，从一个或更多服务器比较简单的发送数据。重量级代理会耗尽额外的系统资源。一些供应商像Loggly提供配置脚本，来使用现存的系统日志程序更轻松。这有一个Loggly上的例子[脚本][22]，它能运行在任意数量的服务器上。 - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.loggly.com/ultimate-guide/logging/managing-linux-logs/ - -作者：[Jason Skowronski][a1] -作者：[Amy Echeverri][a2] -作者：[Sadequl Hussain][a3] -译者：[wyangsun](https://github.com/wyangsun) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a1]:https://www.linkedin.com/in/jasonskowronski -[a2]:https://www.linkedin.com/in/amyecheverri -[a3]:https://www.linkedin.com/pub/sadequl-hussain/14/711/1a7 -[1]:https://docs.google.com/document/d/11LXZxWlkNSHkcrCWTUdnLRf_CiZz9kK0cr3yGM_BU_0/edit#heading=h.esrreycnpnbl -[2]:http://www.rsyslog.com/ -[3]:http://www.balabit.com/network-security/syslog-ng/opensource-logging-system -[4]:http://logstash.net/ -[5]:http://www.fluentd.org/ -[6]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/rsyslog_conf.html -[7]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/master/rainerscript/index.html -[8]:https://docs.google.com/document/d/11LXZxWlkNSHkcrCWTUdnLRf_CiZz9kK0cr3yGM_BU_0/edit#heading=h.eck7acdxin87 -[9]:https://www.loggly.com/docs/file-monitoring/ -[10]:http://www.networksorcery.com/enp/protocol/udp.htm -[11]:http://www.networksorcery.com/enp/protocol/tcp.htm -[12]:http://blog.gerhards.net/2008/04/on-unreliability-of-plain-tcp-syslog.html -[13]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/relp.html -[14]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/queues.html -[15]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/tls_cert_ca.html -[16]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/tls_cert_machine.html -[17]:http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/v8-stable/configuration/modules/imuxsock.html -[18]:https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/how-to-manage-log-files-with-logrotate-on-ubuntu-12-10 -[19]:http://www.infoworld.com/article/2614204/data-center/puppet-or-chef--the-configuration-management-dilemma.html -[20]:http://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-docker-and-why-is-it-so-darn-popular/ -[21]:https://github.com/progrium/logspout -[22]:https://www.loggly.com/docs/sending-logs-unixlinux-system-setup/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150824 How to create an AP in Ubuntu 15.04 to connect to Android or iPhone.md b/translated/tech/20150824 How to create an AP in Ubuntu 15.04 to connect to Android or iPhone.md deleted file mode 100644 index 02aef62d82..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/20150824 How to create an AP in Ubuntu 15.04 to connect to Android or iPhone.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,74 +0,0 @@ -如何在 Ubuntu 15.04 下创建连接至 Android/iOS 的 AP -================================================================================ -我成功地在 Ubuntu 15.04 下用 Gnome Network Manager 创建了一个无线AP热点. 接下来我要分享一下我的步骤. 请注意: 你必须要有一个可以用来创建AP热点的无线网卡. 如果你不知道如何找到连上了的设备的话, 在终端(Terminal)里输入`iw list`. - -如果你没有安装`iw`的话, 在Ubuntu下你可以使用`udo apt-get install iw`进行安装. - -在你键入`iw list`之后, 寻找可用的借口, 你应该会看到类似下列的条目: - -Supported interface modes: - -* IBSS -* managed -* AP -* AP/VLAN -* monitor -* mesh point - -让我们一步步看 - -1. 断开WIFI连接. 使用有线网络接入你的笔记本. -1. 在顶栏面板里点击网络的图标 -> Edit Connections(编辑连接) -> 在弹出窗口里点击Add(新增)按钮. -1. 在下拉菜单内选择Wi-Fi. -1. 接下来, - -a. 输入一个链接名 比如: Hotspot - -b. 输入一个 SSID 比如: Hotspot - -c. 选择模式(mode): Infrastructure - -d. 设备 MAC 地址: 在下拉菜单里选择你的无线设备 - -![](http://i2.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome1.jpg) - -1. 进入Wi-Fi安全选项卡, 选择 WPA & WPA2 Personal 并且输入密码. -1. 进入IPv4设置选项卡, 在Method(方法)下拉菜单里, 选择Shared to other computers(共享至其他电脑). - -![](http://i1.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome4.jpg) - -1. 进入IPv6选项卡, 在Method(方法)里设置为忽略ignore (只有在你不使用IPv6的情况下这么做) -1. 点击 Save(保存) 按钮以保存配置. -1. 从 menu/dash 里打开Terminal. -1. 修改你刚刚使用 network settings 创建的连接. - -使用 VIM 编辑器: - - sudo vim /etc/NetworkManager/system-connections/Hotspot - -使用Gedit 编辑器: - - gksu gedit /etc/NetworkManager/system-connections/Hotspot - -把名字 Hotspot 用你在第4步里起的连接名替换掉. - -![](http://i2.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome2.jpg?resize=640%2C402) - -1. 把 `mode=infrastructure` 改成 `mode=ap` 并且保存文件 -1. 一旦你保存了这个文件, 你应该能在 Wifi 菜单里看到你刚刚建立的AP了. (如果没有的话请再顶栏里 关闭/打开 Wifi 选项一次) - -![](http://i1.wp.com/www.linuxveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ubuntu-ap-gnome3.jpg?resize=290%2C375) - -1. 你现在可以把你的设备连上Wifi了. 已经过 Android 5.0的小米4测试.(下载了1GB的文件以测试速度与稳定性) - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.linuxveda.com/2015/08/23/how-to-create-an-ap-in-ubuntu-15-04-to-connect-to-androidiphone/ - -作者：[Sayantan Das][a] -译者：[jerryling315](https://github.com/jerryling315) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.linuxveda.com/author/sayantan_das/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150914 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check weather forecasts from the command line on Linux.md b/translated/tech/20150914 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check weather forecasts from the command line on Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b7751e118a --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20150914 Linux FAQs with Answers--How to check weather forecasts from the command line on Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +Linux 问与答：如何在Linux 命令行下浏览天气预报 +================================================================================ +> **Q**: 我经常在Linux 桌面查看天气预报。然而，是否有一种在终端环境下，不通过桌面小插件或者网络查询天气预报的方法？ + +对于Linux 桌面用户来说，有很多办法获取天气预报，比如使用专门的天气应用，桌面小插件，或者面板小程序。但是如果你的工作环境实际与终端的，这里也有一些在命令行下获取天气的手段。 + +其中有一个就是 [wego][1]，**一个终端下的小巧程序**。使用基于ncurses 的接口，这个命令行程序允许你查看当前的天气情况和之后的预报。它也会通过一个天气预报的API 收集接下来5 天的天气预报。 + +### 在Linux 下安装Wego ### +安装wego 相当简单。wego 是用Go 编写的，引起第一个步骤就是安装[Go 语言][2]。然后再安装wego。 + + $ go get github.com/schachmat/wego + +wego 会被安装到$GOPATH/bin，所以要将$GOPATH/bin 添加到$PATH 环境变量。 + + $ echo 'export PATH="$PATH:$GOPATH/bin"' >> ~/.bashrc + $ source ~/.bashrc + +现在就可与直接从命令行启动wego 了。 + + $ wego + +第一次运行weg 会生成一个配置文件(~/.wegorc)，你需要指定一个天气API key。 +你可以从[worldweatheronline.com][3] 获取一个免费的API key。免费注册和使用。你只需要提供一个有效的邮箱地址。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5781/21317466341_5a368b0d26_c.jpg) + +你的 .wegorc 配置文件看起来会这样： + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5620/21121418558_df0d27cd0a_b.jpg) + +除了API key，你还可以把你想要查询天气的地方、使用的城市/国家名称、语言配置在~/.wegorc 中。 +注意，这个天气API 的使用有限制：每秒最多5 次查询，每天最多250 次查询。 +当你重新执行wego 命令，你将会看到最新的天气预报（当然是你的指定地方），如下显示。 + +![](https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5776/21121218110_dd51e03ff4_c.jpg) + +显示出来的天气信息包括：(1)温度，(2)风速和风向，(3)可视距离，(4)降水量和降水概率 +默认情况下会显示3 天的天气预报。如果要进行修改，可以通过参数改变天气范围（最多5天），比如要查看5 天的天气预报： + + $ wego 5 + +如果你想检查另一个地方的天气，只需要提供城市名即可： + + $ wego Seattle + +### 问题解决 ### +1. 可能会遇到下面的错误： + + user: Current not implemented on linux/amd64 + + 当你在一个不支持原生Go 编译器的环境下运行wego 时就会出现这个错误。在这种情况下你只需要使用gccgo ——一个Go 的编译器前端来编译程序即可。这一步可以通过下面的命令完成。 + + $ sudo yum install gcc-go + $ go get -compiler=gccgo github.com/schachmat/wego + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://ask.xmodulo.com/weather-forecasts-command-line-linux.html + +作者：[Dan Nanni][a] +译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/oska874) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/author/nanni +[1]:https://github.com/schachmat/wego +[2]:http://ask.xmodulo.com/install-go-language-linux.html +[3]:https://developer.worldweatheronline.com/auth/register diff --git a/translated/tech/20150917 TERMINATOR 0.98 INSTALL IN UBUNTU AND LINUX MINT.md b/translated/tech/20150917 TERMINATOR 0.98 INSTALL IN UBUNTU AND LINUX MINT.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d571566c62 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20150917 TERMINATOR 0.98 INSTALL IN UBUNTU AND LINUX MINT.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +在 Ubuntu 和 Linux Mint 上安装 Terminator 0.98 +================================================================================ +[Terminator][1]，在一个窗口中有多个终端。该项目的目标之一是为管理终端提供一个有用的工具。它的灵感来自于类似 gnome-multi-term，quankonsole 等程序，这些程序关注于在窗格中管理终端。 Terminator 0.98 带来了更完美的标签功能，更好的布局保存/恢复，改进了偏好用户界面和多出 bug 修复。 + +![](http://www.ewikitech.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Screenshot-from-2015-09-17-094828.png) + +###TERMINATOR 0.98 的更改和新特性 +- 添加了一个布局启动器，允许在不用布局之间简单切换（用 Alt + L 打开一个新的布局切换器）； +- 添加了一个新的手册（使用 F1 打开）； +- 保存的时候，布局现在会记住： + - * 最大化和全屏状态 + - * 窗口标题 + - * 激活的标签 + - * 激活的终端 + - * 每个终端的工作目录 +- 添加选项用于启用/停用非同质标签和滚动箭头； +- 添加快捷键用于按行/半页/一页向上/下滚动; +- 添加使用 Ctrl+鼠标滚轮放大/缩小，Shift+鼠标滚轮向上/下滚动页面； +- 为下一个/上一个 profile 添加快捷键 +- 改进自定义命令菜单的一致性 +- 新增快捷方式/代码来切换所有/标签分组; +- 改进监视插件 +- 增加搜索栏切换； +- 清理和重新组织窗口偏好，包括一个完整的全局便签更新 +- 添加选项用于设置 ActivityWatcher 插件静默时间 +- 其它一些改进和 bug 修复 +- [点击此处查看完整更新日志][2] + +### 安装 Terminator 0.98： + +Terminator 0.98 有可用的 PPA，首先我们需要在 Ubuntu/Linux Mint 上添加库。在终端里运行下面的命令来安装 Terminator 0.98。 + + $ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:gnome-terminator/nightly + $ sudo apt-get update + $ sudo apt-get install terminator + +如果你想要移除 Terminator，只需要在终端中运行下面的命令（可选） + + $ sudo apt-get remove terminator + + + + + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.ewikitech.com/articles/linux/terminator-install-ubuntu-linux-mint/ + +作者：[admin][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://mutouxiaogui.cn/blog) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.ewikitech.com/author/admin/ +[1]:https://launchpad.net/terminator +[2]:http://bazaar.launchpad.net/~gnome-terminator/terminator/trunk/view/head:/ChangeLog + + + diff --git a/translated/tech/20150918 Install Justniffer In Ubuntu 15.04.md b/translated/tech/20150918 Install Justniffer In Ubuntu 15.04.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1d711ea08b --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20150918 Install Justniffer In Ubuntu 15.04.md @@ -0,0 +1,151 @@ +在 Ubuntu 15.04 上安装 Justniffer +================================================================================ +### 简介 ### + +[Justniffer][1] 是一个可用于替换 Snort 的网络协议分析器。它非常流行，可交互式地跟踪/探测一个网络连接。它能从实时环境中抓取流量，支持 “lipcap” 和 “tcpdump” 文件格式。它可以帮助用户分析一个用 wireshark 难以抓包的复杂网络。尤其是它可以有效的帮助分析应用层流量，能提取类似图像、脚本、HTML 等 http 内容。Justniffer 有助于理解不同组件之间是如何通信的。 + +### 功能 ### + +Justniffer 收集一个复杂网络的所有流量而不影响系统性能，这是 Justniffer 的一个优势，它还可以保存日志用于之后的分析，Justniffer 其它一些重要功能包括： + +#### 1. 可靠的 TCP 流重建 #### + +它可以使用主机 Linux 内核的一部分用于记录并重现 TCP 片段和 IP 片段。 + +#### 2. 日志 #### + +保存日志用于之后的分析，并能自定义保存内容和时间。 + +#### 3. 可扩展 #### + +可以通过外部 python、 perl 和 bash 脚本扩展来从分析报告中获取一些额外的结果。 + +#### 4. 性能管理 #### + +基于连接时间、关闭时间、响应时间或请求时间等提取信息。 + +### 安装 ### + +Justniffer 可以通过 PPA 安装： + +运行下面命令添加库： + + $ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:oreste-notelli/ppa + +更新系统： + + $ sudo apt-get update + +安装 Justniffer 工具： + + $ sudo apt-get install justniffer + +make 的时候失败了，然后我运行下面的命令并尝试重新安装服务 + + $ sudo apt-get -f install + +### 事例 ### + +首先用 -v 选项验证安装的 Justniffer 版本，你需要用超级用户权限来使用这个工具。 + + $ sudo justniffer -V + +事例输出： + +![j](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/j.png) + +**1. 为 eth1 接口导出 apache 中的流量到终端** + + $ sudo justniffer -i eth1 + +事例输出： + +![Selection_001](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0013.png) + +**2. 可以永恒下面的选项跟踪正在运行的 tcp 流** + + $ sudo justniffer -i eth1 -r + +事例输出： + +![Selection_002](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0023.png) + +**3. 获取 web 服务器的响应时间** + + $ sudo justniffer -i eth1 -a " %response.time" + +事例输出： + +![Selection_003](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0033.png) + +**4. 使用 Justniffer 读取一个 tcpdump 抓取的文件** + +首先，用 tcpdump 抓取流量。 + + $ sudo tcpdump -w /tmp/file.cap -s0 -i eth0 + +然后用 Justniffer 访问数据 + + $ justniffer -f file.cap + +事例输出： + +![Selection_005](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0056.png) + +**5. 只抓取 http 数据** + + $ sudo justniffer -i eth1 -r -p "port 80 or port 8080" + +事例输出： + +![Selection_006](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0064.png) + +**6. 从一个指定主机获取 http 数据** + + $ justniffer -i eth1 -r -p "host 192.168.1.250 and tcp port 80" + +事例输出： + +![Selection_007](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0074.png) + +**7. 以更精确的格式抓取数据** + +当你输入 **justniffer -h** 的时候你可以看到很多用于以更精确的方式获取数据的格式关键字 + + $ justniffer -h + +事例输出： + +![Selection_008](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0083.png) + +让我们用 Justniffer 根据预先定义的参数提取数据 + + $ justniffer -i eth1 -l "%request.timestamp %request.header.host %request.url %response.time" + +事例输出： + +![Selection_009](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Selection_0094.png) + +其中还有很多你可以探索的选项 + +### 总结 ### + +Justniffer 是用于网络测试一个很好的工具。在我看来对于那些用 Snort 来进行网络探测的用户来说，Justniffer 是一个更简单的工具。它提供了很多 **格式关键字** 用于按照你的需要精确地提取数据。你可以用 .cap 文件格式记录网络信息，之后用于分析监视网络服务性能。 + +**参考资料：** + +- [Justniffer 官网][2] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.unixmen.com/install-justniffer-ubuntu-15-04/ + +作者：[Rajneesh Upadhyay][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://mutouxiaogui.cn/blog) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.unixmen.com/author/rajneesh/ +[1]:http://sourceforge.net/projects/justniffer/?source=directory +[2]:http://justniffer.sourceforge.net/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/20150921 Configure PXE Server In Ubuntu 14.04.md b/translated/tech/20150921 Configure PXE Server In Ubuntu 14.04.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..eab3fb5224 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20150921 Configure PXE Server In Ubuntu 14.04.md @@ -0,0 +1,251 @@ + + 在 Ubuntu 14.04 中配置 PXE 服务器 +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/pxe-featured.jpg) + +PXE（Preboot Execution Environment--预启动执行环境）服务器允许用户从网络中启动 Linux 发行版并且可以同时在数百台 PC 中安装而不需要 Linux ISO 镜像。如果你客户端的计算机没有 CD/DVD 或USB 引导盘，或者如果你想在大型企业中同时安装多台计算机，那么 PXE 服务器可以帮你节省时间和金钱。 + +在这篇文章中，我们将告诉你如何在 Ubuntu 14.04 配置 PXE 服务器。 + +### 配置网络 ### + +开始前，你需要先设置 PXE 服务器使用静态 IP。在你的系统中要使用静态 IP 地址，需要编辑 “/etc/network/interfaces” 文件。 + +1. 打开 “/etc/network/interfaces” 文件. + + sudo nano /etc/network/interfaces + + 作如下修改: + + # 回环网络接口 + auto lo + iface lo inet loopback + # 主网络接口 + auto eth0 + iface eth0 inet static + address 192.168.1.20 + netmask 255.255.255.0 + gateway 192.168.1.1 + dns-nameservers 8.8.8.8 + +保存文件并退出。这将设置其 IP 地址为“192.168.1.20”。然后重新启动网络服务。 + + sudo /etc/init.d/networking restart + +### 安装 DHCP, TFTP 和 NFS: ### + +DHCP，TFTP 和 NFS 是 PXE 服务器的重要组成部分。首先，需要更新你的系统并安装所有需要的软件包。 + +为此，运行以下命令： + + sudo apt-get update + sudo apt-get install isc-dhcp-Server inetutils-inetd tftpd-hpa syslinux nfs-kernel-Server + +### 配置 DHCP 服务: ### + +DHCP 代表动态主机配置协议（Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol），并且它主要用于动态分配网络配置参数，如用于接口和服务的 IP 地址。在 PXE 环境中，DHCP 服务器允许客户端请求并自动获得一个 IP 地址来访问网络。 + +1. 编辑 “/etc/default/dhcp3-server” 文件. + + sudo nano /etc/default/dhcp3-server + + 作如下修改: + + INTERFACES="eth0" + +保存 (Ctrl + o) 并退出 (Ctrl + x) 文件. + +2. 编辑 “/etc/dhcp3/dhcpd.conf” 文件: + + sudo nano /etc/dhcp/dhcpd.conf + + 作如下修改: + + default-lease-time 600; + max-lease-time 7200; + subnet 192.168.1.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 { + range 192.168.1.21 192.168.1.240; + option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0; + option routers 192.168.1.20; + option broadcast-address 192.168.1.255; + filename "pxelinux.0"; + next-Server 192.168.1.20; + } + +保存文件并退出。 + +3. 启动 DHCP 服务. + + sudo /etc/init.d/isc-dhcp-server start + +### 配置 TFTP 服务器: ### + +TFTP 是一种文件传输协议，类似于 FTP。它不用进行用户认证也不能列出目录。TFTP 服务器总是监听网络上的 PXE 客户端。当它检测到网络中有 PXE 客户端请求 PXE 服务器时，它将提供包含引导菜单的网络数据包。 + +1. 配置 TFTP 时,需要编辑 “/etc/inetd.conf” 文件. + + sudo nano /etc/inetd.conf + + 作如下修改: + + tftp dgram udp wait root /usr/sbin/in.tftpd /usr/sbin/in.tftpd -s /var/lib/tftpboot + + 保存文件并退出。 + +2. 编辑 “/etc/default/tftpd-hpa” 文件。 + + sudo nano /etc/default/tftpd-hpa + + 作如下修改: + + TFTP_USERNAME="tftp" + TFTP_DIRECTORY="/var/lib/tftpboot" + TFTP_ADDRESS="[:0.0.0.0:]:69" + TFTP_OPTIONS="--secure" + RUN_DAEMON="yes" + OPTIONS="-l -s /var/lib/tftpboot" + + 保存文件并退出。 + +3. 使用 `xinetd` 让 boot 服务在每次系统开机时自动启动，并启动tftpd服务。 + + sudo update-inetd --enable BOOT + sudo service tftpd-hpa start + +4. 检查状态。 + + sudo netstat -lu + +它将如下所示: + + Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State + udp 0 0 *:tftp *:* + +### 配置 PXE 启动文件 ### + +现在，你需要将 PXE 引导文件 “pxelinux.0” 放在 TFTP 根目录下。为 TFTP 创建一个目录，并复制 syslinux 在 “/usr/lib/syslinux/” 下提供的所有引导程序文件到 “/var/lib/tftpboot/” 下，操作如下： + + sudo mkdir /var/lib/tftpboot + sudo mkdir /var/lib/tftpboot/pxelinux.cfg + sudo mkdir -p /var/lib/tftpboot/Ubuntu/14.04/amd64/ + sudo cp /usr/lib/syslinux/vesamenu.c32 /var/lib/tftpboot/ + sudo cp /usr/lib/syslinux/pxelinux.0 /var/lib/tftpboot/ + +#### 设置 PXELINUX 配置文件 #### + +PXE 配置文件定义了 PXE 客户端启动时显示的菜单，它能引导并与 TFTP 服务器关联。默认情况下，当一个 PXE 客户端启动时，它会使用自己的 MAC 地址指定要读取的配置文件，所以我们需要创建一个包含可引导内核列表的默认文件。 + +编辑 PXE 服务器配置文件使用可用的安装选项。. + +编辑 “/var/lib/tftpboot/pxelinux.cfg/default,” + + sudo nano /var/lib/tftpboot/pxelinux.cfg/default + + 作如下修改: + + DEFAULT vesamenu.c32 + TIMEOUT 100 + PROMPT 0 + MENU INCLUDE pxelinux.cfg/PXE.conf + NOESCAPE 1 + LABEL Try Ubuntu 14.04 Desktop + MENU LABEL Try Ubuntu 14.04 Desktop + kernel Ubuntu/vmlinuz + append boot=casper netboot=nfs nfsroot=192.168.1.20:/var/lib/tftpboot/Ubuntu/14.04/amd64 + initrd=Ubuntu/initrd.lz quiet splash + ENDTEXT + LABEL Install Ubuntu 14.04 Desktop + MENU LABEL Install Ubuntu 14.04 Desktop + kernel Ubuntu/vmlinuz + append boot=casper automatic-ubiquity netboot=nfs nfsroot=192.168.1.20:/var/lib/tftpboot/Ubuntu/14.04/amd64 + initrd=Ubuntu/initrd.lz quiet splash + ENDTEXT + +保存文件并退出。 + +编辑 “/var/lib/tftpboot/pxelinux.cfg/pxe.conf” 文件。 + + sudo nano /var/lib/tftpboot/pxelinux.cfg/pxe.conf + +作如下修改: + + MENU TITLE PXE Server + NOESCAPE 1 + ALLOWOPTIONS 1 + PROMPT 0 + MENU WIDTH 80 + MENU ROWS 14 + MENU TABMSGROW 24 + MENU MARGIN 10 + MENU COLOR border 30;44 #ffffffff #00000000 std + +保存文件并退出。 + +### 为 PXE 服务器添加 Ubuntu 14.04 桌面启动镜像 ### + +对于这一步，Ubuntu 内核和 initrd 文件是必需的。要获得这些文件，你需要 Ubuntu 14.04 桌面 ISO 镜像。你可以通过以下命令下载 Ubuntu 14.04 ISO 镜像到 /mnt 目录： + + sudo cd /mnt + sudo wget http://releases.ubuntu.com/14.04/ubuntu-14.04.3-desktop-amd64.iso + +**注意**: 下载用的 URL 可能会改变，因为 ISO 镜像会进行更新。如果上面的网址无法访问，看看这个网站，了解最新的下载链接。 + +挂载 ISO 文件，使用以下命令将所有文件复制到 TFTP文件夹中： + + sudo mount -o loop /mnt/ubuntu-14.04.3-desktop-amd64.iso /media/ + sudo cp -r /media/* /var/lib/tftpboot/Ubuntu/14.04/amd64/ + sudo cp -r /media/.disk /var/lib/tftpboot/Ubuntu/14.04/amd64/ + sudo cp /media/casper/initrd.lz /media/casper/vmlinuz /var/lib/tftpboot/Ubuntu/ + +### 将导出的 ISO 目录配置到 NFS 服务器上 ### + +现在，你需要通过 NFS 协议安装源镜像。你还可以使用 HTTP 和 FTP 来安装源镜像。在这里，我已经使用 NFS 导出 ISO 内容。 + +要配置 NFS 服务器，你需要编辑 “etc/exports” 文件。 + + sudo nano /etc/exports + +作如下修改: + + /var/lib/tftpboot/Ubuntu/14.04/amd64 *(ro,async,no_root_squash,no_subtree_check) + +保存文件并退出。为使更改生效，启动 NFS 服务。 + + sudo exportfs -a + sudo /etc/init.d/nfs-kernel-server start + +现在，你的 PXE 服务器已经准备就绪。 + +### 配置网络引导 PXE 客户端 ### + +PXE 客户端可以被任何具备 PXE 网络引导的系统来启用。现在，你的客户端可以启动并安装 Ubuntu 14.04 桌面，需要在系统的 BIOS 中设置 “Boot From Network” 选项。 + +现在你可以去做 - 用网络引导启动你的 PXE 客户端计算机，你现在应该看到一个子菜单，显示了我们创建的 Ubuntu 14.04 桌面。 + +![pxe](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/09/pxe.png) + +### 结论 ### + +配置使用 PXE 服务器从网络启动安装能提高效率和节省时间。你可以在本地网络中同时安装数百个客户端。所有你需要的只是一个 PXE 服务器和能启动 PXE 的客户端。试试吧，如果这个对你有用请让我们知道。 + + +参考: +- [PXE Server wiki][1] +- [PXE Server Ubuntu][2] + +图片来源: [fupsol_unl_20][3] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/configure-pxe-server-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Hitesh Jethva][a] +译者：[strugglingyouth](https://github.com/strugglingyouth) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/hiteshjethva/ +[1]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preboot_Execution_Environment +[2]:https://help.ubuntu.com/community/PXEInstallServer +[3]:https://www.flickr.com/photos/jhcalderon/3681926417/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150921 How to Setup IonCube Loaders on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md b/translated/tech/20150921 How to Setup IonCube Loaders on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..57652e7e44 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20150921 How to Setup IonCube Loaders on Ubuntu 14.04 or 15.04.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +如何在Ubuntu 14.04 / 15.04中设置IonCube Loaders +================================================================================ +IonCube Loaders是PHP中用于辅助加速页面的加解密工具。它保护你的PHP代码不会被在未授权的计算机上查看。使用ionCube编码并加密PHP需要一个叫ionCube Loader的文件安装在web服务器上并提供给需要大量访问的PHP用。它在运行时处理并执行编码。PHP只需在‘php.ini’中添加一行就可以使用这个loader。 + +### 前提条件 ### + +在这篇文章中，我们将在Ubuntu14.04/15.04安装Ioncube Loader ，以便它可以在所有PHP模式中使用。本教程的唯一要求就是你系统安装了LEMP，并有“的php.ini”文件。 + +### 下载 IonCube Loader ### + +根据你系统的架构是32位或者64位来下载最新的IonCube loader包。你可以用超级用户权限或者root用户运行下面的命令。 + + # wget http://downloads3.ioncube.com/loader_downloads/ioncube_loaders_lin_x86-64.tar.gz + +![download ioncube](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/download1.png) + +下载完成后用下面的命令解压到"/usr/local/src/"。 + + # tar -zxvf ioncube_loaders_lin_x86-64.tar.gz -C /usr/local/src/ + +![extracting archive](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/2-extract.png) + +解压完成后我们就可以看到所有的存在的模块。但是我们只需要我们安装的PHP版本的相关模块。 + +要检查PHP版本，你可以运行下面的命令来找出相关的模块。 + + # php -v + +![ioncube modules](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/modules.png) + +根据上面的命令我们知道我们安装的是PHP 5.6.4，因此我们需要拷贝合适的模块到PHP模块目录下。 + +首先我们在“/usr/local/”创建一个叫“ioncube”的目录并复制需要的ioncube loader到这里。 + + root@ubuntu-15:/usr/local/src/ioncube# mkdir /usr/local/ioncube + root@ubuntu-15:/usr/local/src/ioncube# cp ioncube_loader_lin_5.6.so ioncube_loader_lin_5.6_ts.so /usr/local/ioncube/ + +### PHP 配置 ### + +我们要在位于"/etc/php5/cli/"文件夹下的"php.ini"中加入下面的配置行并重启web服务和php模块。 + + # vim /etc/php5/cli/php.ini + +![ioncube zend extension](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/zend-extension.png) + +此时我们安装的是nginx，因此我们用下面的命令来重启服务。 + + # service php5-fpm restart + # service nginx restart + +![web services](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/web-services.png) + +### 测试 IonCube Loader ### + +要为我们的网站测试ioncube loader。用下面的内容创建一个"info.php"文件并放在网站的web目录下。 + + + # vim /usr/share/nginx/html/info.php + +加入phpinfo的脚本后重启web服务后用域名或者ip地址访问“info.php”。 + +你会在最下面的php模块信息里看到下面这段。 + +![php info](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/php-info.png) + +From the terminal issue the following command to verify the php version that shows the ionCube PHP Loader is Enabled. +在终端中运行下面的命令来验证php版本并显示PHP Loader已经启用了。 + + # php -v + +![php ioncube loader](http://blog.linoxide.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/php-ioncube.png) + +上面的php版本输出明显地显示了IonCube loader已经成功与PHP集成了。 + +### 总结 ### + +教程的最后你已经了解了在安装有nginx的Ubuntu中安装和配置ionCube Loader，如果你正在使用其他的web服务，这与其他服务没有明显的差别。因此做完这些安装Loader是很简单的，并且在大多数服务器上的安装都不会有问题。然而并没有一个所谓的“标准PHP安装”，服务可以通过许多方式安装，并启用或者禁用功能。 + +如果你是在共享服务器上，那么确保运行了ioncube-loader-helper.php脚本，并点击链接来测试运行时安装。如果安装时你仍然遇到了问题，欢迎联系我们及给我们留下评论。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://linoxide.com/ubuntu-how-to/setup-ioncube-loaders-ubuntu-14-04-15-04/ + +作者：[Kashif Siddique][a] +译者：[geekpi](https://github.com/geekpi) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://linoxide.com/author/kashifs/ diff --git a/translated/tech/20150923 How To Upgrade From Oracle 11g To Oracle 12c.md b/translated/tech/20150923 How To Upgrade From Oracle 11g To Oracle 12c.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..921b5d958f --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20150923 How To Upgrade From Oracle 11g To Oracle 12c.md @@ -0,0 +1,165 @@ +如何将 Oracle 11g 升级到 Orcale 12c +================================================================================ +大家好。 + +今天我们来学习一下如何将 Oracle 11g 升级到 Oracle 12c。开始吧。 + +在此，我使用的是 CentOS 7 64 位 Linux 发行版。 + +我假设你已经在你的系统上安装了 Oracle 11g。这里我会展示一下安装 Oracle 11g 时我的操作步骤。 + +我在 Oracle 11g 上选择 “Create and configure a database”，如下图所示。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage1.png) + +然后我选择安装 Oracle 11g “Decktop Class”。如果是生产环境，你必须选择 “Server Class”。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage2.png) + +然后你输入安装 Oracle 11g 的所有路径以及密码。下面是我自己的 Oracle 11g 安装配置。确保你正确输入了 Oracle 的密码。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage3.png) + +下一步，我按照如下设置 Inventory Directory。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage4.png) + +到这里，我已经向你展示了我安装 Oracle 11g 所做的工作，因为我们开始想升级到 12c。 + +让我们将 Oracle 11g 升级到 Oracle 12c 吧。 + +你需要从该[链接][1]上下载两个 zip 文件。下载并解压两个文件到相同目录。文件名为 **linuxamd64_12c_database_1of2.zip** & **linuxamd64_12c_database_2of2.zip**。提取或解压完后，它会创建一个名为 database 的文件夹。 + +注意：升级到 12c 之前，请确保在你的 CentOS 上已经安装了所有必须的软件包并且 path 环境变量也已经正确配置，还有其它前提条件也已经满足。 + +下面是必须使用正确版本安装的一些软件包 + +- binutils +- compat-libstdc++ +- gcc +- glibc +- libaio +- libgcc +- libstdc++ +- make +- sysstat +- unixodbc + +在因特网上搜索正确的 rpm 版本。 + +你也可以用一个查询处理多个软件包，然后在输出中查找正确版本。例如： + +在终端中输入下面的命令 + + rpm -q binutils compat-libstdc++ gcc glibc libaio libgcc libstdc++ make sysstat unixodbc + +你的系统中必须安装了以下软件包（版本可能较新会旧） + +- binutils-2.23.52.0.1-12.el7.x86_64 +- compat-libcap1-1.10-3.el7.x86_64 +- gcc-4.8.2-3.el7.x86_64 +- gcc-c++-4.8.2-3.el7.x86_64 +- glibc-2.17-36.el7.i686 +- glibc-2.17-36.el7.x86_64 +- glibc-devel-2.17-36.el7.i686 +- glibc-devel-2.17-36.el7.x86_64 +- ksh +- libaio-0.3.109-9.el7.i686 +- libaio-0.3.109-9.el7.x86_64 +- libaio-devel-0.3.109-9.el7.i686 +- libaio-devel-0.3.109-9.el7.x86_64 +- libgcc-4.8.2-3.el7.i686 +- libgcc-4.8.2-3.el7.x86_64 +- libstdc++-4.8.2-3.el7.i686 +- libstdc++-4.8.2-3.el7.x86_64 +- libstdc++-devel-4.8.2-3.el7.i686 +- libstdc++-devel-4.8.2-3.el7.x86_64 +- libXi-1.7.2-1.el7.i686 +- libXi-1.7.2-1.el7.x86_64 +- libXtst-1.2.2-1.el7.i686 +- libXtst-1.2.2-1.el7.x86_64 +- make-3.82-19.el7.x86_64 +- sysstat-10.1.5-1.el7.x86_64 + +你也需要 unixODBC-2.3.1 或更新版本的驱动。 + +我希望你安装 Oracle 11g 的时候已经在你的 CentOS 7 上创建了名为 oracle 的用户。 + +让我们以用户 oracle 登录 CentOS。 + +以用户 oracle 登录到 CentOS 之后，在你的 CentOS上打开一个终端。 + +使用终端更改工作目录并导航到你解压两个 zip 文件的目录。在终端中输入以下命令开始安装 12c。 + + ./runInstaller + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212image5.png) + +如果一切顺利，你会看到类似下面的截图，已经开始安装 12c。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage6.png) + +然后你可以选择跳过更新或者下载最近更新。如果是生产服务器，建议你必须更新。我这里选择跳过。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage7.png) + +现在，选择升级现有数据库。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage8.png) + +对于语言，这里已经有 English。点击下一步继续，或者你可以根据你的需要添加语言。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage9.png) + +现在，选择企业版。你可以根据你的需求选择。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage10.png) + +然后选择软件位置路径，这些都是不言自明的。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage11.png) + +第七步，像下面这样使用默认的选择继续下一步。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage12.png) + +在第九步，你会看到一个类似下面这样的总结报告。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage13.png) + +如果一切正常，你可以点击步骤九中的 install 开始安装，进入步骤十。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/11g212cimage14.png) + +其中你可能会遇到一些错误，你需要通过谷歌找到这些错误的解决方法。你可能遇到的问题会有很多，因此我没有在这里详细介绍。 + +要有耐心，一步一步走下来最后它会告诉你成功了。否则，在谷歌上搜索做必要的操作解决问题。再一次说明，由于你可能会遇到的错误有很多，我无法在这里提供所有详细介绍。 + +现在，只需要按照下面屏幕指令配置监听器 + +配置完监听器之后，它会启动数据库升级助手（Database Upgrade Assistant）。选择 Upgrade Oracle Database。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/DUAimage15.png) + +在第二步，你会发现它显示了 11g 的位置路径以及 12c 的位置路径。同时你也会发现它指示说从原来的 Oracle Home Release 11 安装 Oracle Home Release 12.点击下一步进入步骤三。 + +![](http://www.unixmen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/DUAimage16.png) + +按照屏幕上的说明完成安装。 + +在最后一步，你会看到一个成功窗口，其中你会看到成功升级了 oracle 数据库。 + +**一个忠告**：对于你的生产服务器，在升级到 12c 之前，请确保你已经在其它平台上测试过，以便你能修复升级过程中遇到的所有错误。永远不要尝试一无所知的时候就升级生产服务器。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.unixmen.com/upgrade-from-oracle-11g-to-oracle-12c/ + +作者：[Mohammad Forhad Iftekher][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.unixmen.com/author/forhad/ +[1]:http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/enterprise-edition/downloads/database12c-linux-download-1959253.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/20150929 A Developer's Journey into Linux Containers.md b/translated/tech/20150929 A Developer's Journey into Linux Containers.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a71b5e8fb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20150929 A Developer's Journey into Linux Containers.md @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ +开发者的 Linux 容器之旅 +================================================================================ +![](https://deis.com/images/blog-images/dev_journey_0.jpg) + +我告诉你一个秘密：使得我的应用程序进入到全世界的所有云计算的东西，对我来说仍然有一点神秘。但随着时间流逝，我意识到理解大规模机器配置和应用程序部署的来龙去脉对一个开发者来说是非常重要的知识。这类似于成为一个专业的音乐家。你当然需要知道如何使用你的乐器。但是，如果你不知道一个录音室是如何工作的，或者你如何适应一个交响乐团，你在这样的环境中工作会变得非常困难。 + +在软件开发的世界里，使你的代码进入我们更大的世界正如写出它来一样重要。开发重要，而且是很重要。 + +因此，为了弥合开发和部署之间的间隔，我会从头开始介绍容器技术。为什么是容器？因为有强有力的证据表明，容器是机器抽象的下一步：使计算机成为场所而不再是一个东西。理解容器是我们共同的旅程。 + +在这篇文章中，我会介绍容器化背后的概念。容器和虚拟机的区别。以及容器构建背后的逻辑以及它是如何适应应用程序架构的。我会探讨轻量级的 Linux 操作系统是如何适应容器生态系统。我还会讨论使用镜像创建可重用的容器。最后我会介绍容器集群如何使你的应用程序可以快速扩展。 + +在后面的文章中，我会一步一步向你介绍容器化一个事例应用程序的过程，以及如何为你的应用程序容器创建一个托管集群。同时，我会向你展示如何使用 Deis 将你的事例应用程序部署到你本地系统以及多种云供应商的虚拟机上。 + +让我们开始吧。 + +### 虚拟机的好处 ### + +为了理解容器如何适应事物发展，你首先要了解容器的前者：虚拟机 + +[虚拟机][1] 是运行在物理宿主机上的软件抽象。配置一个虚拟机就像是购买一台计算机：你需要定义你想要的 CPU 数目，RAM 和磁盘存储容量。配置好了机器后，你把它加载到操作系统，然后是你想让虚拟机支持的任何服务器或者应用程序。 + +虚拟机允许你在一台硬件主机上运行多个模拟计算机。这是一个简单的示意图： + +![](https://deis.com/images/blog-images/dev_journey_1.png) + +虚拟机使得能充分利用你的硬件资源。你可以购买一台大型机然后在上面运行多个虚拟机。你可以有一个数据库虚拟机以及很多运行相同版本定制应用程序的虚拟机构成的集群。你可以在有限的硬件资源获得很多的扩展能力。如果你觉得你需要更多的虚拟机而且你的宿主硬件还有容量，你可以添加任何你想要的。或者，如果你不再需要一个虚拟机，你可以关闭该虚拟机并删除虚拟机镜像。 + +### 虚拟机的局限 ### + +但是，虚拟机确实有局限。 + +如上面所示，假如你在一个主机上创建了三个虚拟机。主机有 12 个 CPU，48 GB 内存和 3TB 的存储空间。每个虚拟机配置为有 4 个 CPU，16 GB 内存和 1TB 存储空间。到现在为止，一切都还好。主机有这个容量。 + +但这里有个缺陷。所有分配给一个虚拟机的资源，无论是什么，都是专有的。每台机器都分配了 16 GB 的内存。但是，如果第一个虚拟机永不会使用超过 1GB 分配的内存，剩余的 15 GB 就会被浪费在那里。如果第三天虚拟机只使用分配的 1TB 存储空间中的 100GB，其余的 900GB 就成为浪费空间。 + +这里没有资源的流动。每台虚拟机拥有分配给它的所有资源。因此，在某种方式上我们又回到了虚拟机之前，把大部分金钱花费在未使用的资源上。 + +虚拟机还有*另一个*缺陷。扩展他们需要很长时间。如果你处于基础设施需要快速增长的情形，即使虚拟机配置是自动的，你仍然会发现你的很多时间都浪费在等待机器上线。 + +### 来到：容器 ### + +概念上来说，容器是 Linux 中认为只有它自己的一个进程。该进程只知道告诉它的东西。另外，在容器化方面，该容器进程也分配了它自己的 IP 地址。这点很重要，我会再次重复。**在容器化方面，容器进程有它自己的 IP 地址**。一旦给予了一个 IP 地址，该进程就是宿主网络中可识别的资源。然后，你可以在容器管理器上运行命令，使容器 IP 映射到主机中能访问公网的 IP 地址。该映射发生时，对于任何意图和目的，一个容器就是网络上一个可访问的独立机器，概念上类似于虚拟机。 + +再次说明，容器是拥有不同 IP 地址从而使其成为网络上可识别的独立 Linux 进程。下面是一个示意图： + +![](https://deis.com/images/blog-images/dev_journey_2.png) + +容器/进程以动态合作的方式共享主机上的资源。如果容器只需要 1GB 内存，它就只会使用 1GB。如果它需要 4GB，就会使用 4GB。CPU 和存储空间利用也是如此。CPU，内存和存储空间的分配是动态的，和典型虚拟机的静态方式不同。所有这些资源的共享都由容器管理器管理。 + +最后，容器能快速启动。 + +因此，容器的好处是：**你获得了虚拟机独立和封装的好处而抛弃了专有静态资源的缺陷**。另外，由于容器能快速加载到内存，在扩展到多个容器时你能获得更好的性能。 + +### 容器托管、配置和管理 ### + +托管容器的计算机运行着被剥离的只剩下主要部分的 Linux 版本。现在，宿主计算机流行的底层操作系统是上面提到的 [CoreOS][2]。当然还有其它，例如 [Red Hat Atomic Host][3] 和 [Ubuntu Snappy][4]。 + +所有容器之间共享Linux 操作系统，减少了容器足迹的重复和冗余。每个容器只包括该容器唯一的部分。下面是一个示意图： + +![](https://deis.com/images/blog-images/dev_journey_3.png) + +你用它所需的组件配置容器。一个容器组件被称为**层**。一层是一个容器镜像，（你会在后面的部分看到更多关于容器镜像的介绍）。你从一个基本层开始，这通常是你想在容器中使用的操作系统。（容器管理器只提供你想要的操作系统在宿主操作系统中不存在的部分。）当你构建配置你的容器时，你会添加层，例如你想要添加网络服务器 Apache，如果容器要运行脚本，则需要添加 PHP 或 Python 运行时。 + +分层非常灵活。如果应用程序或者服务容器需要 PHP 5.2 版本，你相应地配置该容器即可。如果你有另一个应用程序或者服务需要 PHP 5.6 版本，没问题，你可以使用 PHP 5.6 配置该容器。不像虚拟机，更改一个版本的运行时依赖时你需要经过大量的配置和安装过程；对于容器你只需要在容器配置文件中重新定义层。 + +所有上面描述的容器多功能性都由一个称为容器管理器的软件控制。现在，最流行的容器管理器是 [Docker][5] 和 [Rocket][6]。上面的示意图展示了容器管理器是 Docker，宿主操作系统是 CentOS 的主机情景。 + +### 容器由镜像构成 ### + +当你需要将我们的应用程序构建到容器时，你就会编译镜像。镜像代表了需要完成容器工作的容器模板。（容器里的容器）。镜像被保存在网络上的注册表里。 + +从概念上讲，注册表类似于一个使用 Java 的人眼中的 [Maven][7] 仓库，使用 .NET 的人眼中的 [NuGet][8] 服务器。你会创建一个列出了你应用程序所需镜像的容器配置文件。然后你使用容器管理器创建一个包括了你应用程序代码以及从注册表中下载的构成资源的容器。例如，如果你的应用程序包括了一些 PHP 文件，你的容器配置文件会声明你会从注册表中获取 PHP 运行时。另外，你还要使用容器配置文件声明需要复制到容器文件系统中的 .php 文件。容器管理器会封装你应用程序的所有东西为一个独立容器。该容器将会在容器管理器的管理下运行在宿主计算机上。 + +这是一个容器创建背后概念的示意图： + +![](https://deis.com/images/blog-images/dev_journey_4.png) + +让我们仔细看看这个示意图。 + +（1）表示一个定义了你容器所需东西以及你容器如何构建的容器配置文件。当你在主机上运行容器时，容器管理器会读取配置文件从云上的注册表中获取你需要的容器镜像，（2）作为层将镜像添加到你的容器。 + +另外，如果组成镜像需要其它镜像，容器管理器也会获取这些镜像并把它们作为层添加进来。（3）容器管理器会将需要的文件复制到容器中。 + +如果你使用了配置服务，例如 [Deis][9]，你刚刚创建的应用程序容器作为镜像存在（4）配置服务会将它部署到你选择的云供应商上。类似 AWS 和 Rackspace 云供应商。 + +### 集群中的容器 ### + +好了。这里有一个很好的例子说明了容器比虚拟机提供了更好的配置灵活性和资源利用率。但是，这并不是全部。 + +容器真正灵活是在集群中。记住，每个容器有一个独立的 IP 地址。因此，能把它放到负载均衡器后面。将容器放到负载均衡器后面，就上升了一个层次。 + +你可以在一个负载均衡容器后运行容器集群以获得更高的性能和高可用计算。这是一个例子： + +![](https://deis.com/images/blog-images/dev_journey_5.png) + +假如你开发了一个进行资源密集型工作的应用程序。例如图片处理。使用类似 [Deis][9] 的容器配置技术，你可以创建一个包括了你图片处理程序以及你图片处理程序需要的所有资源的容器镜像。然后，你可以部署一个或多个容器镜像到主机上的负载均衡器。一旦创建了容器镜像，你可以在系统快要刷爆时把它放到一边，为了满足手中的工作时添加更多的容器实例。 + +这里还有更多好消息。你不需要每次添加实例到环境中时手动配置负载均衡器以便接受你的容器镜像。你可以使用服务发现技术告知均衡器你容器的可用性。然后，一旦获知，均衡器就会将流量分发到新的结点。 + +### 全部放在一起 ### + +容器技术完善了虚拟机不包括的部分。类似 CoreOS、RHEL Atomic、和 Ubuntu 的 Snappy 宿主操作系统，和类似 Docker 和 Rocket 的容器管理技术结合起来，使得容器变得日益流行。 + +尽管容器变得更加越来越普遍，掌握它们还是需要一段时间。但是，一旦你懂得了它们的窍门，你可以使用类似 [Deis][9] 的配置技术使容器创建和部署变得更加简单。 + +概念上理解容器和进一步实际使用它们完成工作一样重要。但我认为不实际动手把想法付诸实践，概念也难以理解。因此，我们该系列的下一阶段就是：创建一些容器。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://deis.com/blog/2015/developer-journey-linux-containers + +作者：[Bob Reselman][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://deis.com/blog +[1]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine +[2]:https://coreos.com/using-coreos/ +[3]:http://www.projectatomic.io/ +[4]:https://developer.ubuntu.com/en/snappy/ +[5]:https://www.docker.com/ +[6]:https://coreos.com/blog/rocket/ +[7]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Maven +[8]:https://www.nuget.org/ +[9]:http://deis.com/learn \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/20151007 Productivity Tools And Tips For Linux.md b/translated/tech/20151007 Productivity Tools And Tips For Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a3245013fa --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/20151007 Productivity Tools And Tips For Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +Linux产能工具及其使用技巧 +================================================================================ +![](http://itsfoss.itsfoss.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Productivity-Tips-Linux.jpg) + +由于生产力本身是一个主观术语，我不打算详细解释我这里要讲到的“生产力”是什么。我打算给你们展示一些工具及其使用技巧，希望这会帮助你在Linux中工作时能更专注、更高效，并且能节省时间。 + +### Linux产能工具及其使用技巧 ### + +再次说明，我在写下本文时正在使用的是Ubuntu。但是，我将要在这里展示给大家产能工具及其使用技巧却适用于外面的大多数Linux发行版。 + +#### 外界的音乐 #### + +[音乐影响生产力][1]，这已经是一个公开的秘密了。从心理学家到管理大师，他们都一直在建议使用外界的杂音来让自己放松并专注于工作。我不打算就此进行辩论，因为这对于我确实有效。我戴上耳机，然后倾听着鸟叫声和风声，这确实让我很放松。 + +在Linux中，我使用ANoise播放器来播放外界的杂音。多亏了官方提供的PPA，你可以很容易地[安装Ambient Noise播放器到Ubuntu中][2]，以及其它基于Ubuntu的Linux发行版中。安装它，也可以让它离线播放外界的音乐。 + +另外，你也总可以在线听外界杂音。我最喜欢的在线外界音乐站点是[Noisli][3]。强烈推荐你试试这个。 + +#### 任务管理应用 #### + +一个良好的生产习惯，就是制订一个任务列表。如果你将它和[番茄工作法][4]组合使用，那就可能创造奇迹了。这里我所说的是，创建一个任务列表，如果可能，将这些任务分配到特定的某个时间。这将会帮助你跟踪一天中计划好的任务。 + +对于此，我推荐[Go For It!][5]应用。你可以将它安装到所有主流Linux发行版中，由于它基于[ToDo.txt][6]，你也可以很容易地同步到你的智能手机中。我已经为此写了一个详尽的指南[如何使用Go For It!][7]。 + +此外，你可以使用[Sticky Notes][8]或者[Google Keep][9]。如果你需要某些更类似[Evernote][10]的功能，你可以使用这些[Evernote的开源替代品][11]。 + +#### 剪贴板管理器 #### + +Ctrl+ C和Ctrl+V是我们日常计算机生活中不可缺少的一部分，它们唯一的不足之处在于，这些重要的活动不会被记住（默认情况下）。假如你拷贝了一些重要的东西，然后你意外地又拷贝了一些其它东西，你将丢失先前拷贝的东西。 + +剪贴板管理器在这种情况下会派上用场，它可以显示你最近拷贝（到剪贴板的）内容的历史记录，你可以从它这里将文本拷贝回到剪贴板中。 + +对于该目的，我更偏好[Diodon剪贴板管理器][12]。它处于活跃开发中，并且在Ubuntu的仓库中可以得到它。 + +#### 最近通知 #### + +如果你正忙着处理其它事情，而此时一个桌面通知闪了出来又逐渐消失了，你会怎么做？你会想要看看通知都说了什么，不是吗？最近通知指示器就是用于处理此项工作，它会保留一个最近所有通知的历史记录。这样，你就永远不会错过桌面通知了。 + +你可以阅读[最近通知指示器这里][13]。 + +#### 终端技巧 #### + +不，我不打算给你们展示所有那些Linux命令技巧和快捷方法，那会写满整个博客了。我打算给你们展示一些终端黑技巧，你可以用它们来提高你的生产力。 + +- **修改**sudo**密码超时**：默认情况下，sudo命令要求你在15分钟后再次输入密码，这真是让人讨厌。实际上，你可以修改默认的sudo密码超时。[此教程][14]会给你展示如何来实现。 +- **获取命令完成的桌面通知**：这是IT朋友们之间的一个常见的玩笑，开发者们花费大量时间来等待程序编译完成，而这不完全是正确的。但是，它确实影响到了生产力，因为在你等待程序编译完成时，你可以做其它事情，并忘了你在终端中运行的命令。一个更好的途径，就是在一个命令完成时，让它显示桌面通知。这样，你就不会长时间被打断，并且可以回到之前想要做的事情上。请阅读[如何获取命令完成的桌面通知][15]。 + +我知道，这不是一篇全面涵盖了**提升生产力**的文章。但是，这些小应用和小技巧可以在实际生活中帮助你在你宝贵的时间中做得更多。 + +现在，该轮到你们了。在Linux中，你使用了什么程序或者技巧来提高生产力呢？有哪些东西你想要和社区分享呢？ + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://itsfoss.com/productivity-tips-ubuntu/ + +作者：[Abhishek][a] +译者：[GOLinux](https://github.com/GOLinux) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](http://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://itsfoss.com/author/abhishek/ +[1]:http://www.helpscout.net/blog/music-productivity/ +[2]:http://itsfoss.com/ambient-noise-music-player-ubuntu/ +[3]:http://www.noisli.com/ +[4]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomodoro_Technique +[5]:http://manuel-kehl.de/projects/go-for-it/ +[6]:http://todotxt.com/ +[7]:http://itsfoss.com/go-for-it-to-do-app-in-linux/ +[8]:http://itsfoss.com/indicator-stickynotes-windows-like-sticky-note-app-for-ubuntu/ +[9]:http://itsfoss.com/install-google-keep-ubuntu-1310/ +[10]:https://evernote.com/ +[11]:http://itsfoss.com/5-evernote-alternatives-linux/ +[12]:https://esite.ch/tag/diodon/ +[13]:http://itsfoss.com/7-best-indicator-applets-for-ubuntu-13-10/ +[14]:http://itsfoss.com/change-sudo-password-timeout-ubuntu/ +[15]:http://itsfoss.com/notification-terminal-command-completion-ubuntu/ diff --git a/translated/tech/LFCS/Part 1 - LFCS--How to use GNU 'sed' Command to Create Edit and Manipulate files in Linux.md b/translated/tech/LFCS/Part 1 - LFCS--How to use GNU 'sed' Command to Create Edit and Manipulate files in Linux.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..79e263d7e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/LFCS/Part 1 - LFCS--How to use GNU 'sed' Command to Create Edit and Manipulate files in Linux.md @@ -0,0 +1,220 @@ +Translating by Xuanwo + +LFCS系列第一讲：如何在Linux上使用GNU'sed'命令来创建、编辑和操作文件 +================================================================================ +Linux基金会宣布了一个全新的LFCS（Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin，Linux基金会认证系统管理员）认证计划。这一计划旨在帮助遍布全世界的人们获得其在处理Linux系统管理任务上能力的认证。这些能力包括支持运行的系统服务，以及第一手的故障诊断和分析和为工程师团队在升级时提供智能决策。 + +![Linux Foundation Certified Sysadmin](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/lfcs-Part-1.png) + +Linux基金会认证系统管理员——第一讲 + +请观看下面关于Linux基金会认证计划的演示： + + + +该系列将命名为《LFCS系列第一讲》至《LFCS系列第十讲》并覆盖关于Ubuntu，CentOS以及openSUSE的下列话题。 + +- 第一讲：如何在Linux上使用GNU'sed'命令来创建、编辑和操作文件 +- 第二讲：如何安装和使用vi/m全功能文字编辑器 +- 第三讲：归档文件/目录和在文件系统中寻找文件 +- 第四讲：为存储设备分区，格式化文件系统和配置交换分区 +- 第五讲：在Linux中挂载/卸载本地和网络（Samba & NFS）文件系统 +- 第六讲：组合分区作为RAID设备——创建&管理系统备份 +- 第七讲：管理系统启动进程和服务（使用SysVinit, Systemd 和 Upstart） +- 第八讲：管理用户和组，文件权限和属性以及启用账户的sudo权限 +- 第九讲：Linux包管理与Yum，RPM，Apt，Dpkg，Aptitude，Zypper +- 第十讲：学习简单的Shell脚本和文件系统故障排除 + +本文是覆盖这个参加LFCS认证考试的所必需的范围和能力的十个教程的第一讲。话说了那么多，快打开你的终端，让我们开始吧！ + +### 处理Linux中的文本流 ### + +Linux将程序中的输入和输出当成字符流或者字符序列。在开始理解重定向和管道之前，我们必须先了解三种最重要的I/O（Input and Output，输入和输出）流，事实上，它们都是特殊的文件（根据UNIX和Linux中的约定，数据流和外围设备或者设备文件也被视为普通文件）。 + +> (重定向操作符) 和 | (管道操作符)之间的区别是：前者将命令与文件相连接，而后者将命令的输出和另一个命令相连接。 + + # command > file + # command1 | command2 + +由于重定向操作符静默创建或覆盖文件，我们必须特别小心谨慎地使用它，并且永远不要把它和管道混淆起来。在Linux和UNIX系统上管道的优势是：第一个命令的输出不会写入一个文件而是直接被第二个命令读取。 + +在下面的操作练习中，我们将会使用这首诗——《A happy child》（匿名作者) + +![cat command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/cat-command.png) + +cat 命令样例 + +#### 使用 sed #### + +sed是流编辑器（stream editor）的缩写。为那些不懂术语的人额外解释一下，流编辑器是用来在一个输入流（文件或者管道中的输入）执行基本的文本转换的工具。 + +sed最基本的用法是字符替换。我们将通过把每个出现的小写y改写为大写Y并且将输出重定向到ahappychild2.txt开始。g标志表示sed应该替换文件每一行中所有应当替换的实例。如果这个标志省略了，sed将会只替换每一行中第一次出现的实例。 + +**基本语法：** + + # sed ‘s/term/replacement/flag’ file + +**我们的样例：** + + # sed ‘s/y/Y/g’ ahappychild.txt > ahappychild2.txt + +![sed command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sed-command.png) + +sed 命令样例 + +如果你要在替换文本中搜索或者替换特殊字符（如/，\，＆），你需要使用反斜杠对它进行转义。 + +例如，我们将会用一个符号来替换一个文字。与此同时，我们将把一行最开始出现的第一个I替换为You。 + + # sed 's/and/\&/g;s/^I/You/g' ahappychild.txt + +![sed replace string](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sed-replace-string.png) + +sed 替换字符串 + +在上面的命令中，^（插入符号）是众所周知用来表示一行开头的正则表达式。 + +正如你所看到的，我们可以通过使用分号分隔以及用括号包裹来把两个或者更多的替换命令（并在他们中使用正则表达式）链接起来。 + +另一种sed的用法是显示或者删除文件中选中的一部分。在下面的样例中，将会显示/var/log/messages中从6月8日开始的头五行。 + + # sed -n '/^Jun 8/ p' /var/log/messages | sed -n 1,5p + +请注意，在默认的情况下，sed会打印每一行。我们可以使用-n选项来覆盖这一行为并且告诉sed只需要打印（用p来表示）文件（或管道）中匹配的部分（第一种情况下行开头的第一个6月8日以及第二种情况下的一到五行*此处翻译欠妥，需要修正*）。 + +最后，可能有用的技巧是当检查脚本或者配置文件的时候可以保留文件本身并且删除注释。下面的单行sed命令删除（d）空行或者是开头为`#`的行（|字符返回两个正则表达式之间的布尔值）。 + + # sed '/^#\|^$/d' apache2.conf + +![sed match string](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sed-match-string.png) + +sed 匹配字符串 + +#### uniq C命令 #### + +uniq命令允许我们返回或者删除文件中重复的行，默认写入标准输出。我们必须注意到，除非两个重复的行相邻，否则uniq命令不会删除他们。因此，uniq经常和前序排序（此处翻译欠妥）（一种用来对文本行进行排序的算法）搭配使用。默认情况下，排序使用第一个字段（用空格分隔）作为关键字段。要指定一个不同的关键字段，我们需要使用-k选项。 + +**样例** + +du –sch /path/to/directory/* 命令将会以人类可读的格式返回在指定目录下每一个子文件夹和文件的磁盘空间使用情况（也会显示每个目录总体的情况），而且不是按照大小输出，而是按照子文件夹和文件的名称。我们可以使用下面的命令来让它通过大小排序。 + + # du -sch /var/* | sort –h + +![sort command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sort-command.jpg) + +sort 命令样例 + +你可以通过使用下面的命令告诉uniq比较每一行的前6个字符（-w 6）（指定了不同的日期）来统计日志事件的个数，而且在每一行的开头输出出现的次数（-c）。 + + + # cat /var/log/mail.log | uniq -c -w 6 + +![Count Numbers in File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/count-numbers-in-file.jpg) + +统计文件中数字 + +最后，你可以组合使用sort和uniq命令（通常如此）。考虑下面文件中捐助者，捐助日期和金额的列表。假设我们想知道有多少个捐助者。我们可以使用下面的命令来分隔第一字段（字段由冒号分隔），按名称排序并且删除重复的行。 + + # cat sortuniq.txt | cut -d: -f1 | sort | uniq + +![Find Unique Records in File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/find-uniqu-records-in-file.jpg) + +寻找文件中不重复的记录 + +- 也可阅读: [13个“cat”命令样例][1] + +#### grep 命令 #### + +grep在文件（或命令输出）中搜索指定正则表达式并且在标准输出中输出匹配的行。 + +**样例** + +显示文件/etc/passwd中用户gacanepa的信息，忽略大小写。 + + # grep -i gacanepa /etc/passwd + +![grep Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/grep-command.jpg) + +grep 命令样例 + +显示/etc文件夹下所有rc开头并跟随任意数字的内容。 + + # ls -l /etc | grep rc[0-9] + +![List Content Using grep](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/list-content-using-grep.jpg) + +使用grep列出内容 + +- 也可阅读: [12个“grep”命令样例][2] + +#### tr 命令使用技巧 #### + +tr命令可以用来从标准输入中翻译（改变）或者删除字符并将结果写入到标准输出中。 + +**样例** + +把sortuniq.txt文件中所有的小写改为大写。 + + # cat sortuniq.txt | tr [:lower:] [:upper:] + +![Sort Strings in File](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sort-strings.jpg) + +排序文件中的字符串 + +压缩`ls –l`输出中的定界符至一个空格。 + # ls -l | tr -s ' ' + +![Squeeze Delimiter](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/squeeze-delimeter.jpg) + +压缩分隔符 + +#### cut 命令使用方法 #### + +cut命令可以基于字节数（-b选项），字符（-c）或者字段（-f）提取部分输入（从标准输入或者文件中）并且将结果输出到标准输出。在最后一种情况下（基于字段），默认的字段分隔符是一个tab，但不同的分隔符可以由-d选项来指定。 + +**样例** + +从/etc/passwd中提取用户账户和他们被分配的默认shell（-d选项允许我们指定分界符，-f选项指定那些字段将被提取）。 + + # cat /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1,7 + +![Extract User Accounts](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/extract-user-accounts.jpg) + +提取用户账户 + +总结一下，我们将使用最后一个命令的输出中第一和第三个非空文件创建一个文本流。我们将使用grep作为第一过滤器来检查用户gacanepa的会话，然后将分隔符压缩至一个空格（tr -s ' ')。下一步，我们将使用cut来提取第一和第三个字段，最后使用第二个字段（本样例中，指的是IP地址）来排序之后再用uniq去重。 + + # last | grep gacanepa | tr -s ‘ ‘ | cut -d’ ‘ -f1,3 | sort -k2 | uniq + +![last command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/last-command.png) + +last 命令样例 + +上面的命令显示了如何将多个命令和管道结合起来以便根据我们的愿望得到过滤后的数据。你也可以逐步地使用它以帮助你理解输出是如何从一个命令传输到下一个命令的（顺便说一句，这是一个非常好的学习经验！） + +### 总结 ### + +尽管这个例子（以及在当前教程中的其他实例）第一眼看上去可能不是非常有用，但是他们是体验在Linux命令行中创建，编辑和操作文件的一个非常好的开始。请随时留下你的问题和意见——不胜感激！ + +#### 参考链接 #### + +- [关于LFCS][3] +- [为什么需要Linux基金会认证?][4] +- [注册LFCS考试][5] + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/sed-command-to-create-edit-and-manipulate-files-in-linux/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[Xuanwo](https://github.com/Xuanwo) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/13-basic-cat-command-examples-in-linux/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/12-practical-examples-of-linux-grep-command/ +[3]:https://training.linuxfoundation.org/certification/LFCS +[4]:https://training.linuxfoundation.org/certification/why-certify-with-us +[5]:https://identity.linuxfoundation.org/user?destination=pid/1 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/Learn with Linux--Master Your Math with These Linux Apps.md b/translated/tech/Learn with Linux--Master Your Math with These Linux Apps.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f4625c6c13 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/Learn with Linux--Master Your Math with These Linux Apps.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +Translated by KnightJoker + +用Linux学习：使用这些Linux应用来征服你的数学 +================================================================================ +![](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-featured.png) + +这篇文章是[用Linux学习][1]系列的一部分: + +- [用Linux学习: 学习类型][2] +- [用Linux学习: 物理模拟][3] +- [用Linux学习: 学习音乐][4] +- [用Linux学习: 两个地理应用程序][5] +- [用Linux学习: 用这些Linux应用来征服你的数学][6] + + +Linux提供了大量的教育软件和许多优秀的工具来帮助所有年龄段的学生学习和练习各种各样的话题,常常以交互的方式。与Linux一起学习这一系列的文章则为这些各种各样的教育软件和应用提供了一个介绍。 + +数学是计算机的核心。如果有人用精益求精和纪律来预期一个伟大的操作系统，比如GNU/ Linux，那么这将是数学。如果你在寻求一些数学应用程序，那么你将不会感到失望。Linux提供了很多优秀的工具使得数学看起来和你曾经做过的一样令人畏惧，但实际上他们会简化你使用它的方式。 +### Gnuplot ### + +Gnuplot 是一个适用于不同平台的命令行脚本化和多功能的图形工具。尽管它的名字，并不是GNU操作系统的一部分。也没有免费授权，但它是免费软件（这意味着它受版权保护，但免费使用）。 + +要在Ubuntu系统（或者衍生系统）上安装 `gnuplot`，输入： + sudo apt-get install gnuplot gnuplot-x11 + +进入一个终端窗口。启动该程序，输入： + + gnuplot + +你会看到一个简单的命令行界面： + +![learnmath-gnuplot](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot.png) + +在其中您可以直接开始输入函数。绘图命令将绘制一个曲线图。 + +输入内容，例如， + + plot sin(x)/x + +随着`gnuplot的`提示，将会打开一个新的窗口，图像便会在里面呈现。 + +![learnmath-gnuplot-plot1](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-plot1.png) + +你也可以在线这个图设置不同的属性，比如像这样指定“title” + + plot sin(x) title 'Sine Function', tan(x) title 'Tangent' + +![learnmath-gnuplot-plot2](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-plot2.png) + +使用`splot`命令，你可以给的东西更深入一点并且绘制3D图形 + + splot sin(x*y/20) + +![learnmath-gnuplot-plot3](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-plot3.png) + +这个窗口有几个基本的配置选项, + +![learnmath-gnuplot-options](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-gnuplot-options.png) + +但是`gnuplot`的真正力量在于在它的命令行和脚本功能，`gnuplot`广泛完整的文档可在这里找到，并在[Duke大学网站][8]上面看见这个了不起的教程[7]的原始版本。 + +### Maxima ### + +[Maxima][9]是从Macsyma原始资料开发的一个计算机代数系统，根据它的 SourceForge 页面， + +> “Maxima是符号和数值的表达，包括微分，积分，泰勒级数，拉普拉斯变换，常微分方程，线性方程组，多项式，集合，列表，向量，矩阵和张量系统的操纵系统。Maxima通过精确的分数，任意精度的整数和可变精度浮点数产生高精度的计算结果。Maxima可以二维和三维中绘制函数和数据。“ + +你将会获得二进制包用于大多数Ubuntu衍生系统的Maxima以及它的图形界面中，插入所有包，输入： + + sudo apt-get install maxima xmaxima wxmaxima + +在终端窗口中，Maxima是一个没有太多UI的命令行工具，但如果你开始wxmaxima，你会进入一个简单但功能强大的图形用户界面。 + +![learnmath-maxima](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima.png) + +你可以开始输入这个来简单的一个开始。（提示：如果你想计算一个表达式，使用“Shift + Enter”回车后会增加更多的方法） + +Maxima可以用于一些简单的问题，因此也可以作为一个计算器， + +![learnmath-maxima-1and1](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-1and1.png) + +以及一些更复杂的问题, + +![learnmath-maxima-functions](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-functions.png) + +它使用`gnuplot`使得绘制简单, + +![learnmath-maxima-plot](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-plot.png) + +或者绘制一些复杂的图形. + +![learnmath-maxima-plot2](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-plot2.png) + +（它需要gnuplot-X11的包，来显示它们。） + +除了美化一些图形，Maxima也尽可能用latex格式导出它们，或者通过右键是捷菜单进行一些突出的操作. + +![learnmath-maxima-menu](https://www.maketecheasier.com/assets/uploads/2015/07/learnmath-maxima-menu.png) + +然而其主菜单还是提供了大量压倒性的功能，当然Maxima的功能远不止如此，这里也有一个广泛使用的在线文档。 + +### 总结 ### + +数学不是一个简单的学科，这些在Linux上的优秀软件也没有使得数学更加简单，但是这些应用使得使用数学变得更加的简单和工程化。以上两种应用都只是介绍一下Linux的所提供的。如果你是认真从事数学和需要更多的功能与丰富的文档，那你更应该看看这些Mathbuntu项目。 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ + +作者：[Attila Orosz][a] +译者：[KnightJoker](https://github.com/KnightJoker/译者ID) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/author/attilaorosz/ +[1]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/series/learn-with-linux/ +[2]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-to-type-in-linux/ +[3]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-physics-simulation/ +[4]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-learning-music/ +[5]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/linux-geography-apps/ +[6]:https://www.maketecheasier.com/learn-linux-maths/ +[7]:http://www.gnuplot.info/documentation.html +[8]:http://people.duke.edu/~hpgavin/gnuplot.html +[9]:http://maxima.sourceforge.net/ +[10]:http://maxima.sourceforge.net/documentation.html +[11]:http://www.mathbuntu.org/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 5 - How to Manage System Logs (Configure, Rotate and Import Into Database) in RHEL 7.md b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 5 - How to Manage System Logs (Configure, Rotate and Import Into Database) in RHEL 7.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a37c9610fd --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 5 - How to Manage System Logs (Configure, Rotate and Import Into Database) in RHEL 7.md @@ -0,0 +1,169 @@ +第五部分 - 如何在 RHEL 7 中管理系统日志（配置、旋转以及导入到数据库） +================================================================================ +为了确保你的 RHEL 7 系统安全，你需要通过查看日志文件监控系统中发生的所有活动。这样，你就可以检测任何不正常或有潜在破坏的活动并进行系统故障排除或者其它恰当的操作。 + +![Linux 中使用 Rsyslog 和 Logrotate 旋转日志文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Manage-and-Rotate-Linux-Logs-Using-Rsyslog-Logrotate.jpg) + +（译者注：[日志旋转][9]是系统管理中归档每天产生的日志文件的自动化过程） + +RHCE 考试 - 第五部分：使用 Rsyslog 和 Logrotate 管理系统日志 + +在 RHEL 7 中，[rsyslogd][1] 守护进程负责系统日志，它从 /etc/rsyslog.conf（该文件指定所有系统日志的默认路径）和 /etc/rsyslog.d 中的所有文件（如果有的话）读取配置信息。 + +### Rsyslogd 配置 ### + +快速浏览一下 [rsyslog.conf][2] 会是一个好的开端。该文件分为 3 个主要部分：模块（rsyslong 按照模块化设计），全局指令（用于设置 rsyslogd 守护进程的全局属性），以及规则。正如你可能猜想的，最后一个部分指示获取，显示以及在哪里保存什么的日志（也称为选择子），这也是这篇博文关注的重点。 + +rsyslog.conf 中典型的一行如下所示： + +![Rsyslogd 配置](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Rsyslogd-Configuration.png) + +Rsyslogd 配置 + +在上面的图片中，我们可以看到一个选择子包括了一个或多个用分号分隔的设备：优先级（Facility:Priority）对，其中设备描述了消息类型（参考 [RFC 3164 4.1.1 章节][3] 查看 rsyslog 可用的完整设备列表），优先级指示它的严重性，这可能是以下几种之一： + +- debug +- info +- notice +- warning +- err +- crit +- alert +- emerg + +尽管自身并不是一个优先级，关键字 none 意味着指定设备没有任何优先级。 + +**注意**：给定一个优先级表示该优先级以及之上的消息都应该记录到日志中。因此，上面例子中的行指示 rsyslogd 守护进程记录所有优先级为 info 以及以上（不管是什么设备）的除了属于 mail、authpriv、以及 cron 服务（不考虑来自这些设备的消息）的消息到 /var/log/messages。 + +你也可以使用逗号将多个设备分为一组，对同组中的设备使用相同的优先级。例如下面这行： + + *.info;mail.none;authpriv.none;cron.none /var/log/messages + +也可以这样写： + + *.info;mail,authpriv,cron.none /var/log/messages + +换句话说，mail、authpriv 以及 cron 被分为一组，并使用关键字 none。 + +#### 创建自定义日志文件 #### + +要把所有的守护进程消息记录到 /var/log/tecmint.log，我们需要在 rsyslog.conf 或者 /etc/rsyslog.d 目录中的单独文件（易于管理）添加下面一行： + + daemon.* /var/log/tecmint.log + +然后重启守护进程（注意服务名称不以 d 结尾）： + + # systemctl restart rsyslog + +在随机重启两个守护进程之前和之后查看自定义日志的内容： + +![Linux 创建自定义日志文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Create-Custom-Log-File.png) + +创建自定义日志文件 + +作为一个自学练习，我建议你重点关注设备和优先级，添加额外的消息到已有的日志文件或者像上面那样创建一个新的日志文件。 + +### 使用 Logrotate 旋转日志 ### + +为了防止日志文件无限制增长，logrotate 工具用于旋转、压缩、移除或者通过电子邮件发送日志，从而减轻管理会产生大量日志文件系统的困难。 + +Logrotate 作为一个 cron 作业（/etc/cron.daily/logrotate）每天运行，并从 /etc/logrotate.conf 和 /etc/logrotate.d 中的文件（如果有的话）读取配置信息。 + +对于 rsyslog，即使你可以在主文件中为指定服务包含设置，为每个服务创建单独的配置文件能帮助你更好地组织设置。 + +让我们来看一个典型的 logrotate.conf： + +![Logrotate 配置](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Logrotate-Configuration.png) + +Logrotate 配置 + +在上面的例子中，logrotate 会为 /var/log/wtmp 进行以下操作：尝试每个月旋转一次，但至少文件要大于 1MB，然后用 0664 权限、用户 root、组 utmp 创建一个新的日志文件。下一步只保存一个归档日志，正如旋转指令指定的： + +![每月 Logrotate 日志](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Logrotate-Logs-Monthly.png) + +每月 Logrotate 日志 + +让我们再来看看 /etc/logrotate.d/httpd 中的另一个例子： + +![旋转 Apache 日志文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Rotate-Apache-Log-Files.png) + +旋转 Apache 日志文件 + +你可以在 logrotate 的 man 手册（[man logrotate][4] 和 [man logrotate.conf][5]）中阅读更多有关它的设置。为了方便你的阅读，本文还提供了两篇文章的 PDF 格式。 + +作为一个系统工程师，很可能由你决定多久按照什么格式保存一次日志，取决于你是否有一个单独的分区/逻辑卷给 /var。否则，你真的要考虑删除旧日志以节省存储空间。另一方面，根据你公司和客户内部的政策，为了以后的安全审核，你可能被迫要保留多个日志。 + +#### 保存日志到数据库 #### + +当然检查日志可能是一个很繁琐的工作（即使有类似 grep 工具和正则表达式的帮助）。因为这个原因，rsyslog 允许我们把它们导出到数据库（OTB 支持的关系数据库管理系统包括 MySQL、MariaDB、PostgreSQL 和 Oracle）。 + +指南的这部分假设你已经在要管理日志的 RHEL 7 上安装了 MariaDB 服务器和客户端： + + # yum update && yum install mariadb mariadb-server mariadb-client rsyslog-mysql + # systemctl enable mariadb && systemctl start mariadb + +然后使用 `mysql_secure_installation` 工具为 root 用户设置密码以及其它安全考量： + + +![保证 MySQL 数据库安全](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Secure-MySQL-Database.png) + +保证 MySQL 数据库安全 + +注意：如果你不想用 MariaDB root 用户插入日志消息到数据库，你也可以配置用另一个用户账户。如何实现的介绍已经超出了本文的范围，但在 [MariaDB 知识][6] 中有详细解析。为了简单在这篇指南中我们会使用 root 账户。 + +下一步，从 [GitHub][7] 下载 createDB.sql 脚本并导入到你的数据库服务器： + + # mysql -u root -p < createDB.sql + +![保存服务器日志到数据库](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Save-Server-Logs-to-Database.png) + +保存服务器日志到数据库 + +最后，添加下面的行到 /etc/rsyslog.conf： + + $ModLoad ommysql + $ActionOmmysqlServerPort 3306 + *.* :ommysql:localhost,Syslog,root,YourPasswordHere + +重启 rsyslog 和数据库服务器： + + # systemctl restart rsyslog + # systemctl restart mariadb + +#### 使用 SQL 语法查询日志 #### + +现在执行一些会改变日志的操作（例如停止和启动服务），然后登陆到你的 DB 服务器并使用标准的 SQL 命令显示和查询日志： + + USE Syslog; + SELECT ReceivedAt, Message FROM SystemEvents; + +![在数据库中查询日志](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Query-Logs-in-Database.png) + +在数据库中查询日志 + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中我们介绍了如何设置系统日志，如果旋转日志以及为了简化查询如何重定向消息到数据库。我们希望这些技巧能对你准备 [RHCE 考试][8] 和日常工作有所帮助。 + +正如往常，非常欢迎你的反馈。用下面的表单和我们联系吧。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/manage-linux-system-logs-using-rsyslogd-and-logrotate/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/pdf/rsyslogd.pdf +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/pdf/rsyslog.conf.pdf +[3]:https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3164#section-4.1.1 +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/pdf/logrotate.pdf +[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/pdf/logrotate.conf.pdf +[6]:https://mariadb.com/kb/en/mariadb/create-user/ +[7]:https://github.com/sematext/rsyslog/blob/master/plugins/ommysql/createDB.sql +[8]:http://www.tecmint.com/how-to-setup-and-configure-static-network-routing-in-rhel/ +[9]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_rotation \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 6 - Setting Up Samba and Configure FirewallD and SELinux to Allow File Sharing on Linux or Windows Clients.md b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 6 - Setting Up Samba and Configure FirewallD and SELinux to Allow File Sharing on Linux or Windows Clients.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..cb8fa59954 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 6 - Setting Up Samba and Configure FirewallD and SELinux to Allow File Sharing on Linux or Windows Clients.md @@ -0,0 +1,211 @@ +安装 Samba 并配置 Firewalld 和 SELinux 使得能在 Linux 和 Windows 之间共享文件 - 第六部分 +================================================================================ +由于计算机很少作为一个独立的系统工作，作为一个系统管理员或工程师，就应该知道如何在有多种类型的服务器之间搭设和维护网络。 + +在本篇以及该系列后面的文章中，我们会介绍用 Windows/Linux 配置 Samba 和 NFS 服务器以及 Linux 客户端。 + +![在 Linux 中配置 Samba 进行文件共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/setup-samba-file-sharing-on-linux-windows-clients.png) + +RHCE 系列第六部分 - 设置 Samba 文件共享 + +如果有人叫你设置文件服务器用于协作或者配置很可能有多种不同类型操作系统和设备的企业环境，这篇文章就能派上用场。 + +由于你可以在网上找到很多关于 Samba 和 NFS 背景和技术方面的介绍，在这篇文章以及后续文章中我们就省略了这些部分直接进入到我们的主题。 + +### 步骤一： 安装 Samba 服务器 ### + +我们当前的测试环境包括两台 RHEL 7 和一台 Windows 8： + + 1. Samba / NFS 服务器 [box1 (RHEL 7): 192.168.0.18], + 2. Samba 客户端 #1 [box2 (RHEL 7): 192.168.0.20] + 3. Samba 客户端 #2 [Windows 8 machine: 192.168.0.106] + +![测试安装 Samba](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Testing-Setup-for-Samba.png) + +测试安装 Samba + +在 box1 中安装以下软件包： + + # yum update && yum install samba samba-client samba-common + +在 box2： + + # yum update && yum install samba samba-client samba-common cifs-utils + +安装完成后，就可以配置我们的共享了。 + +### 步骤二： 设置通过 Samba 进行文件共享 ### + +Samba 这么重要的原因之一是它为 SMB/CIFS 客户端（译者注：SMB 是微软和英特尔制定的一种通信协议，CIFS 是其中一个版本，更详细的介绍可以参考[Wiki][6]）提供了文件和打印设备，这使得客户端看起来服务器就是一个 Windows 系统（我必须承认写这篇文章的时候我有一点激动，因为这是我多年前作为一个新手 Linux 系统管理员的第一次设置）。 + +**添加系统用户并设置权限和属性** + +为了允许组协作，我们会在 box1 中用 [useradd 命令][1]创建一个有两个用户（user1 和 user2）的组 finance 和目录 /finance。 + +我们同时会把这个目录的组所有者更改为 finance 并把权限设置为 0777（所有者和组属主可读可写可执行）： + + # groupadd finance + # useradd user1 + # useradd user2 + # usermod -a -G finance user1 + # usermod -a -G finance user2 + # mkdir /finance + # chmod 0770 /finance + # chgrp finance /finance + +### 步骤三： 配置 SELinux 和 Firewalld ### + +在配置 /finance 作为 Samba 共享目录之前，我们需要像下面那样停用 SELinux 或设置恰当的布尔值和安全选项（否则，SELinux 会阻止客户端访问共享目录）： + + # setsebool -P samba_export_all_ro=1 samba_export_all_rw=1 + # getsebool –a | grep samba_export + # semanage fcontext –at samba_share_t "/finance(/.*)?" + # restorecon /finance + +另外我们必须确保 [firewalld][2] 允许 Samba 流量通过。 + + # firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service=samba + # firewall-cmd --reload + +### 步骤四： 配置 Samba 共享目录 ### + +现在我们来看看配置文件 /etc/samba/smb.conf 并添加用于共享的章节（section）：我们希望组 finance 的成员可以浏览 /finance 的内容，在里面保存/创建文件或者子目录（默认权限为 0777，组所有者为 finance）： + +**smb.conf** + +---------- + + [finance] + comment=Directory for collaboration of the company's finance team + browsable=yes + path=/finance + public=no + valid users=@finance + write list=@finance + writeable=yes + create mask=0770 + Force create mode=0770 + force group=finance + +保存文件然后用 testparm 工具进行测试。如果这里有任何错误，命令的输出或提示你需要如何修复。否则，会显示你 Samba 服务器配置的回顾： + +![测试 Samba 配置](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Test-Samba-Configuration.png) + +测试 Samba 配置 + +如果你要添加另一个公开的共享目录（意味着没有任何验证），在 /etc/samba/smb.conf 中创建另一章节，在共享目录名称下面复制上面的章节，只需要把 public=no 更改为 public=yes 并去掉有效用户和写列表命令。 + +### 步骤五： 添加 Samba 用户 ### + +下一步，你需要添加 user1 和 user2 作为 Samba 的用户。要做到这点，你需要用 smbpasswd 命令，它会和 Samba 的数据库进行交互。会提示你输入一个命令用于你之后和共享目录连接： + + # smbpasswd -a user1 + # smbpasswd -a user2 + +最后，重启 Samda，启用系统启动时自动启动服务，并确保共享目录对网络客户端可用： + + # systemctl start smb + # systemctl enable smb + # smbclient -L localhost –U user1 + # smbclient -L localhost –U user2 + + +![验证 Samba 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Verify-Samba-Share.png) + +验证 Samba 共享 + +到这里，已经正确安装和配置了 Samba 文件服务器。现在让我们在 RHEL 7 和 Windows 8 客户端中测试该配置。 + +### 步骤六： 在 Linux 中挂载 Samba 共享 ### + +首先，确保客户端可以访问 Samba 共享： + +# smbclient –L 192.168.0.18 -U user2 + + +![在 Linux 上挂载 Samba 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Mount-Samba-Share-on-Linux.png) + +在 Linux 上挂载 Samba 共享 + +（为 user1 重复上面的命令） + +正如任何其它存储介质，当你需要的时候你可以挂载（之后卸载）该网络共享： + + # mount //192.168.0.18/finance /media/samba -o username=user1 + +![挂载 Samba 网络共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Mount-Samba-Network-Share.png) + +挂载 Samba 网络共享 + +（其中 /media/samba 是一个已有的目录） + +或者在 /etc/fstab 文件中添加下面的条目自动挂载： + +**fstab** + +---------- + + //192.168.0.18/finance /media/samba cifs credentials=/media/samba/.smbcredentials,defaults 0 0 + +其中隐藏文件 /media/samba/.smbcredentials（它的权限被设置为 600 和 root：root）有两行，指示允许使用共享的账户的用户名和密码： + +**.smbcredentials** + +---------- + + username=user1 + password=PasswordForUser1 + +最后，让我们在 /finance 中创建一个文件并检查权限和属性： + + # touch /media/samba/FileCreatedInRHELClient.txt + +![在 Samba 共享中创建文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Create-File-in-Samba-Share.png) + +在 Samba 共享中创建文件 + +正如你看到的，用权限 0770 和属主 user1:finance 创建了文件。 + +### 步骤七： 在 Windows 上挂载 Samba 共享 ### + +要在 Windows 上挂载 Samba 共享，进入 ‘我的计算机’ 并选择 ‘计算机’，‘网络驱动映射’。下一步，为要映射的驱动分配一个字母并用不同的认证检查连接（下面的截图使用我的母语西班牙语）： + +![在 Windows 中挂载 Samba 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Mount-Samba-Share-in-Windows.png) + +在 Windows 中挂载 Samba 共享 + +最后，让我们新建一个文件并检查权限和属性： + +![在 Windows Samba 共享中新建文件](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Create-Files-on-Windows-Samba-Share.png) + +在 Windows Samba 共享中新建文件 + + # ls -l /finance + +这次文件属于 user2，因为这是我们用于从 Windows 客户端中连接的账户。 + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中我们不仅介绍了如何使用不同操作系统设置 Samba 服务器和两个客户端，也介绍了[如何配置 Firewalld][3] 和 [服务器中的 SELinux][4] 以获取所需的组协作功能。 + +最后，同样重要的是，我推荐阅读网上的 [smb.conf man 手册][5] 查看其它可能针对你的情况比本文中介绍的场景更加合适的配置命令。 + +正如往常，欢迎在下面的评论框中留下你的评论或建议。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/setup-samba-file-sharing-for-linux-windows-clients/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/add-users-in-linux/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/firewalld-vs-iptables-and-control-network-traffic-in-firewall/ +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/configure-firewalld-in-centos-7/ +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/selinux-essentials-and-control-filesystem-access/ +[5]:https://www.samba.org/samba/docs/man/manpages-3/smb.conf.5.html +[6]:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_Message_Block \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 7 - Setting Up NFS Server with Kerberos-based Authentication for Linux Clients.md b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 7 - Setting Up NFS Server with Kerberos-based Authentication for Linux Clients.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5eba70cd7a --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 7 - Setting Up NFS Server with Kerberos-based Authentication for Linux Clients.md @@ -0,0 +1,190 @@ +第七部分 - 在 Linux 客户端配置基于 Kerberos 身份验证的 NFS 服务器 +================================================================================ +在本系列的前一篇文章，我们回顾了[如何在可能包括多种类型操作系统的网络上配置 Samba 共享][1]。现在，如果你需要为一组类-Unix 客户端配置文件共享，很自然的你会想到网络文件系统，或简称 NFS。 + + +![设置使用 Kerberos 进行身份验证的 NFS 服务器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Setting-Kerberos-Authentication-with-NFS.jpg) + +RHCE 系列：第七部分 - 设置使用 Kerberos 进行身份验证的 NFS 服务器 + +在这篇文章中我们会介绍配置基于 Kerberos 身份验证的 NFS 共享的整个流程。假设你已经配置好了一个 NFS 服务器和一个客户端。如果还没有，可以参考 [安装和配置 NFS 服务器][2] - 它列出了需要安装的依赖软件包并解释了在进行下一步之前如何在服务器上进行初始化配置。 + +另外，你可能还需要配置 [SELinux][3] 和 [firewalld][4] 以允许通过 NFS 进行文件共享。 + +下面的例子假设你的 NFS 共享目录在 box2 的 /nfs： + + # semanage fcontext -a -t public_content_rw_t "/nfs(/.*)?" + # restorecon -R /nfs + # setsebool -P nfs_export_all_rw on + # setsebool -P nfs_export_all_ro on + +（其中 -P 标记指示重启持久有效）。 + +最后，别忘了： + +#### 创建 NFS 组并配置 NFS 共享目录 #### + +1. 新建一个名为 nfs 的组并给它添加用户 nfsnobody，然后更改 /nfs 目录的权限为 0770，组属主为 nfs。于是，nfsnobody（对应请求用户）在共享目录有写的权限，你就不需要在 /etc/exports 文件中使用 no_root_squash（译者注：设为 root_squash 意味着在访问 NFS 服务器上的文件时，客户机上的 root 用户不会被当作 root 用户来对待）。 + + # groupadd nfs + # usermod -a -G nfs nfsnobody + # chmod 0770 /nfs + # chgrp nfs /nfs + +2. 像下面那样更改 export 文件（/etc/exports）只允许从 box1 使用 Kerberos 安全验证的访问（sec=krb5）。 + +**注意**：anongid 的值设置为之前新建的组 nfs 的 GID： + +**exports – 添加 NFS 共享** + +---------- + + /nfs box1(rw,sec=krb5,anongid=1004) + +3. 再次 exprot（-r）所有（-a）NFS 共享。为输出添加详情（-v）是个好主意，因为它提供了发生错误时解决问题的有用信息： + + # exportfs -arv + +4. 重启并启用 NFS 服务器以及相关服务。注意你不需要启动 nfs-lock 和 nfs-idmapd，因为系统启动时其它服务会自动启动它们： + + # systemctl restart rpcbind nfs-server nfs-lock nfs-idmap + # systemctl enable rpcbind nfs-server + +#### 测试环境和其它前提要求 #### + +在这篇指南中我们使用下面的测试环境： + +- 客户端机器 [box1: 192.168.0.18] +- NFS / Kerberos 服务器 [box2: 192.168.0.20] （也称为密钥分发中心，简称 KDC）。 + +**注意**：Kerberos 服务是至关重要的认证方案。 + +正如你看到的，为了简便，NFS 服务器和 KDC 在同一台机器上，当然如果你有更多可用机器你也可以把它们安装在不同的机器上。两台机器都在 `mydomain.com` 域。 + +最后同样重要的是，Kerberos 要求客户端和服务器中至少有一个域名解析的基本模式和[网络时间协议][5]服务，因为 Kerberos 身份验证的安全一部分基于时间戳。 + +为了配置域名解析，我们在客户端和服务器中编辑 /etc/hosts 文件： + +**host 文件 – 为域添加 DNS** + +---------- + + 192.168.0.18 box1.mydomain.com box1 + 192.168.0.20 box2.mydomain.com box2 + +在 RHEL 7 中，chrony 是用于 NTP 同步的默认软件： + + # yum install chrony + # systemctl start chronyd + # systemctl enable chronyd + +为了确保 chrony 确实在和时间服务器同步你系统的时间，你可能要输入下面的命令两到三次，确保时间偏差尽可能接近 0： + + # chronyc tracking + + +![用 Chrony 同步服务器时间](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Synchronize-Time-with-Chrony.png) + +用 Chrony 同步服务器时间 + +### 安装和配置 Kerberos ### + +要设置 KDC，首先在客户端和服务器安装下面的软件包（客户端不需要 server 软件包）： + + # yum update && yum install krb5-server krb5-workstation pam_krb5 + +安装完成后，编辑配置文件（/etc/krb5.conf 和 /var/kerberos/krb5kdc/kadm5.acl），像下面那样用 `mydomain.com` 替换所有 example.com。 + +下一步，确保 Kerberos 能功过防火墙并启动/启用相关服务。 + +**重要**：客户端也必须启动和启用 nfs-secure： + + # firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service=kerberos + # systemctl start krb5kdc kadmin nfs-secure + # systemctl enable krb5kdc kadmin nfs-secure + +现在创建 Kerberos 数据库（请注意这可能会需要一点时间，因为它会和你的系统进行多次交互）。为了加速这个过程，我打开了另一个终端并运行了 ping -f localhost 30 到 45 秒）： + + # kdb5_util create -s + +![创建 Kerberos 数据库](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Create-Kerberos-Database.png) + +创建 Kerberos 数据库 + +下一步，使用 kadmin.local 工具为 root 创建管理权限： + + # kadmin.local + # addprinc root/admin + +添加 Kerberos 服务器到数据库： + + # addprinc -randkey host/box2.mydomain.com + +在客户端（box1）和服务器（box2）上对 NFS 服务同样操作。请注意下面的截图中在退出前我忘了在 box1 上进行操作： + + # addprinc -randkey nfs/box2.mydomain.com + # addprinc -randkey nfs/box1.mydomain.com + +输入 quit 和回车键退出： + +![添加 Kerberos 到 NFS 服务器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Create-Kerboros-for-NFS.png) + +添加 Kerberos 到 NFS 服务器 + +为 root/admin 获取和缓存票据授权票据（ticket-granting ticket）： + + # kinit root/admin + # klist + +![缓存 Kerberos](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Cache-kerberos-Ticket.png) + +缓存 Kerberos + +真正使用 Kerberos 之前的最后一步是保存被授权使用 Kerberos 身份验证的规则到一个密钥表文件（在服务器中）： + + # kdadmin.local + # ktadd host/box2.mydomain.com + # ktadd nfs/box2.mydomain.com + # ktadd nfs/box1.mydomain.com + +最后，挂载共享目录并进行一个写测试： + + # mount -t nfs4 -o sec=krb5 box2:/nfs /mnt + # echo "Hello from Tecmint.com" > /mnt/greeting.txt + +![挂载 NFS 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Mount-NFS-Share.png) + +挂载 NFS 共享 + +现在让我们卸载共享，在客户端中重命名密钥表文件（模拟它不存在）然后试着再次挂载共享目录： + + # umount /mnt + # mv /etc/krb5.keytab /etc/krb5.keytab.orig + +![挂载/卸载 Kerberos NFS 共享](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Mount-Unmount-Kerberos-NFS-Share.png) + +挂载/卸载 Kerberos NFS 共享 + +现在你可以使用基于 Kerberos 身份验证的 NFS 共享了。 + +### 总结 ### + +在这篇文章中我们介绍了如何设置带 Kerberos 身份验证的 NFS。和我们在这篇指南中介绍的相比，该主题还有很多相关内容，可以在 [Kerberos 手册][6] 查看，另外至少可以说 Kerberos 有一点棘手，如果你在测试或实现中遇到了任何问题或需要帮助，别犹豫在下面的评论框中告诉我们吧。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/setting-up-nfs-server-with-kerberos-based-authentication/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/setup-samba-file-sharing-for-linux-windows-clients/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/configure-nfs-server/ +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/selinux-essentials-and-control-filesystem-access/ +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/firewalld-rules-for-centos-7/ +[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/install-ntp-server-in-centos/ +[6]:http://web.mit.edu/kerberos/krb5-1.12/doc/admin/admin_commands/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 8 - RHCE Series--Implementing HTTPS through TLS using Network Security Service NSS for Apache.md b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 8 - RHCE Series--Implementing HTTPS through TLS using Network Security Service NSS for Apache.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5ff1f9fe65 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 8 - RHCE Series--Implementing HTTPS through TLS using Network Security Service NSS for Apache.md @@ -0,0 +1,210 @@ +RHCE 系列： 使用网络安全服务（NSS）为 Apache 通过 TLS 实现 HTTPS +================================================================================ +如果你是一个负责维护和确保 web 服务器安全的系统管理员，你不能不花费最大的精力确保服务器中处理和通过的数据任何时候都受到保护。 +![使用 SSL/TLS 设置 Apache HTTPS](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Setup-Apache-SSL-TLS-Server.png) + +RHCE 系列：第八部分 - 使用网络安全服务（NSS）为 Apache 通过 TLS 实现 HTTPS + +为了在客户端和服务器之间提供更安全的连接，作为 HTTP 和 SSL（安全套接层）或者最近称为 TLS（传输层安全）的组合，产生了 HTTPS 协议。 + +由于一些严重的安全漏洞，SSL 已经被更健壮的 TLS 替代。由于这个原因，在这篇文章中我们会解析如何通过 TLS 实现你 web 服务器和客户端之间的安全连接。 + +这里假设你已经安装并配置好了 Apache web 服务器。如果还没有，在进入下一步之前请阅读下面站点中的文章。 + +- [在 RHEL/CentOS 7 上安装 LAMP（Linux，MySQL/MariaDB，Apache 和 PHP）][1] + +### 安装 OpenSSL 和一些工具包 ### + +首先，确保正在运行 Apache 并且允许 http 和 https 通过防火墙： + + # systemctl start http + # systemctl enable http + # firewall-cmd --permanent –-add-service=http + # firewall-cmd --permanent –-add-service=https + +然后安装一些必须软件包： + + # yum update && yum install openssl mod_nss crypto-utils + +**重要**：请注意如果你想使用 OpenSSL 库而不是 NSS（网络安全服务）实现 TLS，你可以在上面的命令中用 mod\_ssl 替换 mod\_nss（使用哪一个取决于你，但在这篇文章中由于更加健壮我们会使用 NSS；例如，它支持最新的加密标准，比如 PKCS #11）。 + +如果你使用 mod\_nss，首先要卸载 mod\_ssl，反之如此。 + + # yum remove mod_ssl + +### 配置 NSS（网络安全服务）### + +安装完 mod\_nss 之后，会创建默认的配置文件 /etc/httpd/conf.d/nss.conf。你应该确保所有 Listen 和 VirualHost 指令都指向 443 号端口（HTTPS 默认端口）： + +nss.conf – 配置文件 + +---------- + + Listen 443 + VirtualHost _default_:443 + +然后重启 Apache 并检查是否加载了 mod\_nss 模块： + + # apachectl restart + # httpd -M | grep nss + +![在 Apache 中检查 mod_nss 模块](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Check-Mod_NSS-Module-in-Apache.png) + +检查 Apache 是否加载 mod\_nss 模块 + +下一步，在 `/etc/httpd/conf.d/nss.conf` 配置文件中做以下更改： + +1. 指定 NSS 数据库目录。你可以使用默认的目录或者新建一个。本文中我们使用默认的： + + NSSCertificateDatabase /etc/httpd/alias + +2. 通过保存密码到数据库目录中的 /etc/httpd/nss-db-password.conf 文件避免每次系统启动时要手动输入密码： + + NSSPassPhraseDialog file:/etc/httpd/nss-db-password.conf + +其中 /etc/httpd/nss-db-password.conf 只包含以下一行，其中 mypassword 是后面你为 NSS 数据库设置的密码： + + internal:mypassword + +另外，要设置该文件的权限和属主为 0640 和 root:apache： + + # chmod 640 /etc/httpd/nss-db-password.conf + # chgrp apache /etc/httpd/nss-db-password.conf + +3. 由于 POODLE SSLv3 漏洞，红帽建议停用 SSL 和 TLSv1.0 之前所有版本的 TLS（更多信息可以查看[这里][2]）。 + +确保 NSSProtocol 指令的每个实例都类似下面一样（如果你没有托管其它虚拟主机，很可能只有一条）： + + NSSProtocol TLSv1.0,TLSv1.1 + +4. 由于这是一个自签名证书，Apache 会拒绝重启，并不会识别为有效发行人。由于这个原因，对于这种特殊情况我们还需要添加： + + NSSEnforceValidCerts off + +5. 虽然并不是严格要求，为 NSS 数据库设置一个密码同样很重要： + + # certutil -W -d /etc/httpd/alias + +![为 NSS 数据库设置密码](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Set-Password-for-NSS-Database.png) + +为 NSS 数据库设置密码 + +### 创建一个 Apache SSL 自签名证书 ### + +下一步，我们会创建一个自签名证书为我们的客户机识别服务器（请注意这个方法对于生产环境并不是最好的选择；对于生产环境你应该考虑购买第三方可信证书机构验证的证书，例如 DigiCert）。 + +我们用 genkey 命令为 box1 创建有效期为 365 天的 NSS 兼容证书。完成这一步后： + + # genkey --nss --days 365 box1 + +选择 Next： + +![创建 Apache SSL 密钥](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Create-Apache-SSL-Key.png) + +创建 Apache SSL 密钥 + +你可以使用默认的密钥大小（2048），然后再次选择 Next： + +![选择 Apache SSL 密钥大小](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Select-Apache-SSL-Key-Size.png) + +选择 Apache SSL 密钥大小 + +等待系统生成随机比特： + +![生成随机密钥比特](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Generating-Random-Bits.png) + +生成随机密钥比特 + +为了加快速度，会提示你在控制台输入随机字符，正如下面的截图所示。请注意当没有从键盘接收到输入时进度条是如何停止的。然后，会让你选择： + +1. 是否发送验证签名请求（CSR）到一个验证机构（CA）：选择 No，因为这是一个自签名证书。 + +2. 为证书输入信息。 + +注：youtube 视频 + + +最后，会提示你输入之前设置的密码到 NSS 证书： + + # genkey --nss --days 365 box1 + +![Apache NSS 证书密码](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Apache-NSS-Password.png) + +Apache NSS 证书密码 + +在任何时候你都可以用以下命令列出现有的证书： + + # certutil –L –d /etc/httpd/alias + +![列出 Apache NSS 证书](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/List-Apache-Certificates.png) + +列出 Apache NSS 证书 + +然后通过名字删除（除非严格要求，用你自己的证书名称替换 box1）： + + # certutil -d /etc/httpd/alias -D -n "box1" + +如果你需要继续的话： + +### 测试 Apache SSL HTTPS 连接 ### + +最后，是时候测试到我们服务器的安全连接了。当你用浏览器打开 https://，你会看到著名的信息 “This connection is untrusted”： + +![检查 Apache SSL 连接](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Check-Apache-SSL-Connection.png) + +检查 Apache SSL 连接 + +在上面的情况中，你可以点击添加例外（Add Exception） 然后确认安全例外（Confirm Security Exception） - 但先不要这么做。让我们首先来看看证书看它的信息是否和我们之前输入的相符（如截图所示）。 + +要做到这点，点击上面的视图（View...）-> 详情（Details）选项卡，当你从列表中选择发行人你应该看到这个： + +![确认 Apache SSL 证书详情](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Check-Apache-SSL-Certificate-Details.png) + +确认 Apache SSL 证书详情 + +现在你继续，确认例外（限于此次或永久），然后会通过 https 把你带到你 web 服务器的 DocumentRoot 目录，在这里你可以使用你浏览器自带的开发者工具检查连接详情： + +在火狐浏览器中，你可以通过在屏幕中右击然后从上下文菜单中选择检查元素（Inspect Element）启动，尤其是通过网络选项卡： + +![检查 Apache HTTPS 连接](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Inspect-Apache-HTTPS-Connection.png) + +检查 Apache HTTPS 连接 + +请注意这和之前显示的在验证过程中输入的信息一致。还有一种方式通过使用命令行工具测试连接： + +左边（测试 SSLv3）： + + # openssl s_client -connect localhost:443 -ssl3 + +右边（测试 TLS）： + + # openssl s_client -connect localhost:443 -tls1 + +![测试 Apache SSL 和 TLS 连接](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Testing-Apache-SSL-and-TLS.png) + +测试 Apache SSL 和 TLS 连接 + +参考上面的截图了解更相信信息。 + +### 总结 ### + +我确信你已经知道，使用 HTTPS 会增加会在你站点中输入个人信息的访客的信任（从用户名和密码到任何商业/银行账户信息）。 + +在那种情况下，你会希望获得由可信验证机构签名的证书，正如我们之前解释的（启用的步骤和发送 CSR 到 CA 然后获得签名证书的例子相同）；另外的情况，就是像我们的例子中一样使用自签名证书。 + +要获取更多关于使用 NSS 的详情，可以参考关于 [mod-nss][3] 的在线帮助。如果你有任何疑问或评论，请告诉我们。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/create-apache-https-self-signed-certificate-using-nss/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[ictlyh](http://www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/install-lamp-in-centos-7/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[2]:https://access.redhat.com/articles/1232123 +[3]:https://git.fedorahosted.org/cgit/mod_nss.git/plain/docs/mod_nss.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 9 - How to Setup Postfix Mail Server (SMTP) using null-client Configuration.md b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 9 - How to Setup Postfix Mail Server (SMTP) using null-client Configuration.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ccc67dbb30 --- /dev/null +++ b/translated/tech/RHCE/Part 9 - How to Setup Postfix Mail Server (SMTP) using null-client Configuration.md @@ -0,0 +1,153 @@ +第九部分 - 如果使用零客户端配置 Postfix 邮件服务器（SMTP） +================================================================================ +尽管现在有很多在线联系方式，邮件仍然是一个人传递信息给远在世界尽头或办公室里坐在我们旁边的另一个人的有效方式。 + +下面的图描述了邮件从发送者发出直到信息到达接收者收件箱的传递过程。 + +![邮件如何工作](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/How-Mail-Setup-Works.png) + +邮件如何工作 + +要使这成为可能，背后发生了好多事情。为了使邮件信息从一个客户端应用程序（例如 [Thunderbird][1]、Outlook，或者网络邮件服务，例如 Gmail 或 Yahoo 邮件）到一个邮件服务器，并从其到目标服务器并最终到目标接收人，每个服务器上都必须有 SMTP（简单邮件传输协议）服务。 + +这就是为什么我们要在这篇博文中介绍如何在 RHEL 7 中设置 SMTP 服务器，从中本地用户发送的邮件（甚至发送到本地用户）被转发到一个中央邮件服务器以便于访问。 + +在实际需求中这称为零客户端安装。 + +在我们的测试环境中将包括一个原始邮件服务器和一个中央服务器或中继主机。 + + 原始邮件服务器： （主机名: box1.mydomain.com / IP: 192.168.0.18） + 中央邮件服务器： （主机名: mail.mydomain.com / IP: 192.168.0.20） + +为了域名解析我们在两台机器中都会使用有名的 /etc/hosts 文件： + + 192.168.0.18 box1.mydomain.com box1 + 192.168.0.20 mail.mydomain.com mail + +### 安装 Postfix 和防火墙/SELinux 注意事项 ### + +首先，我们需要（在两台机器上）： + +**1. 安装 Postfix：** + + # yum update && yum install postfix + +**2. 启动服务并启用开机自动启动：** + + # systemctl start postfix + # systemctl enable postfix + +**3. 允许邮件流量通过防火墙：** + + # firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service=smtp + # firewall-cmd --add-service=smtp + + +![在防火墙中开通邮件服务器端口](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Allow-Traffic-through-Firewall.png) + +在防火墙中开通邮件服务器端口 + +**4. 在 box1.mydomain.com 配置 Postfix** + +Postfix 的主要配置文件是 /etc/postfix/main.cf。这个文件本身是一个很大的文本，因为其中包含的注释解析了程序设置的目的。 + +为了简洁，我们只显示了需要编辑的行（是的，在原始服务器中你需要保留 mydestination 为空；否则邮件会被保存到本地而不是我们实际想要的中央邮件服务器）： + +**在 box1.mydomain.com 配置 Postfix** + +---------- + + myhostname = box1.mydomain.com + mydomain = mydomain.com + myorigin = $mydomain + inet_interfaces = loopback-only + mydestination = + relayhost = 192.168.0.20 + +**5. 在 mail.mydomain.com 配置 Postfix** + +** 在 mail.mydomain.com 配置 Postfix ** + +---------- + + myhostname = mail.mydomain.com + mydomain = mydomain.com + myorigin = $mydomain + inet_interfaces = all + mydestination = $myhostname, localhost.$mydomain, localhost, $mydomain + mynetworks = 192.168.0.0/24, 127.0.0.0/8 + +如果还没有设置，还要设置相关的 SELinux 布尔值永久为真： + + # setsebool -P allow_postfix_local_write_mail_spool on + +![设置 Postfix SELinux 权限](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Set-Postfix-SELinux-Permission.png) + +设置 Postfix SELinux 权限 + +上面的 SELinux 布尔值会允许 Postfix 在中央服务器写入邮件池。 + +**6. 在两台机子上重启服务以使更改生效：** + + # systemctl restart postfix + +如果 Postfix 没有正确启动，你可以使用下面的命令进行错误处理。 + + # systemctl –l status postfix + # journalctl –xn + # postconf –n + +### 测试 Postfix 邮件服务 ### + +为了测试邮件服务器，你可以使用任何邮件用户代理（最常见的简称为 MUA）例如 [mail 或 mutt][2]。 + +由于我个人喜欢 mutt，我会在 box1 中使用它发送邮件给用户 tecmint，并把现有文件（mailbody.txt）作为信息内容： + + # mutt -s "Part 9-RHCE series" tecmint@mydomain.com < mailbody.txt + +![测试 Postfix 邮件服务器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Test-Postfix-Mail-Server.png) + +测试 Postfix 邮件服务器 + +现在到中央邮件服务器（mail.mydomain.com）以 tecmint 用户登录，并检查是否收到了邮件： + + # su – tecmint + # mail + +![检查 Postfix 邮件服务器发送](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Check-Postfix-Mail-Server-Delivery.png) + +检查 Postfix 邮件服务器发送 + +如果没有收到邮件，检查 root 用户的邮件池查看警告或者错误提示。你也需要使用 [nmap 命令][3]确保两台服务器运行了 SMTP 服务，并在中央邮件服务器中 打开了 25 号端口： + + # nmap -PN 192.168.0.20 + +![Postfix 邮件服务器错误处理](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Troubleshoot-Postfix-Mail-Server.png) + +Postfix 邮件服务器错误处理 + +### 总结 ### + +像本文中展示的设置邮件服务器和中继主机是每个系统管理员必须拥有的重要技能，也代表了理解和安装更复杂情景的基础，例如一个邮件服务器托管有多个邮件账户（甚至成百上千）的域名。 + +（请注意这种类型的设置需要有 DNS 服务器，这不在本文的介绍范围），但你可以参照下面的文章设置 DNS 服务器： + +- [在 CentOS/RHEL 07 上配置仅缓存的 DNS 服务器][4] + +最后，我强烈建议你熟悉 Postfix 的配置文件（main.cf）和这个程序的帮助手册。如果有任何疑问，别犹豫，使用下面的评论框或者我们的论坛 Linuxsay.com 告诉我们吧，你会从世界各地的 Linux 高手中获得几乎及时的帮助。 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +via: http://www.tecmint.com/setup-postfix-mail-server-smtp-using-null-client-on-centos/ + +作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] +译者：[ictlyh](https//www.mutouxiaogui.cn/blog/) +校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) + +本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创编译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 + +[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ +[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/install-thunderbird-17-in-ubuntu-xubuntu-linux-mint/ +[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/send-mail-from-command-line-using-mutt-command/ +[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/nmap-command-examples/ +[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/setup-dns-cache-server-in-centos-7/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 01--Reviewing Essential Commands and System Documentation.md b/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 01--Reviewing Essential Commands and System Documentation.md deleted file mode 100644 index 93c2787c7e..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 01--Reviewing Essential Commands and System Documentation.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,320 +0,0 @@ -[translating by xiqingongzi] - -RHCSA系列: 复习基础命令及系统文档 – 第一部分 -================================================================================ -RHCSA (红帽认证系统工程师) 是由给商业公司提供开源操作系统和软件的RedHat公司举行的认证考试, 除此之外，红帽公司还为这些企业和机构提供支持、训练以及咨询服务 - -![RHCSA Exam Guide](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/RHCSA-Series-by-Tecmint.png) - -RHCSA 考试准备指南 - -RHCSA 考试(考试编号 EX200)通过后可以获取由Red Hat 公司颁发的证书. RHCSA 考试是RHCT(红帽认证技师)的升级版,而且RHCSA必须在新的Red Hat Enterprise Linux(红帽企业版)下完成.RHCT和RHCSA的主要变化就是RHCT基于 RHEL5 , 而RHCSA基于RHEL6或者7, 这两个认证的等级也有所不同. - -红帽认证管理员所会的最基础的是在红帽企业版的环境下执行如下系统管理任务： - -- 理解并会使用命令管理文件、目录、命令行以及系统/软件包的文档 -- 使用不同的启动等级启动系统,认证和控制进程，启动或停止虚拟机 -- 使用分区和逻辑卷管理本地存储 -- 创建并且配置本地文件系统和网络文件系统，设置他们的属性(许可、加密、访问控制表) -- 部署、配置、并且控制系统，包括安装、升级和卸载软件 -- 管理系统用户和组，独立使用集中制的LDAP目录权限控制 -- 确保系统安全，包括基础的防火墙规则和SELinux配置 - - -关于你所在国家的考试注册费用参考 [RHCSA Certification page][1]. - -关于你所在国家的考试注册费用参考RHCSA 认证页面 - - -在这个有15章的RHCSA(红帽认证管理员)备考系列,我们将覆盖以下的关于红帽企业Linux第七版的最新的信息 - -- Part 1: 回顾必会的命令和系统文档 -- Part 2: 在RHEL7如何展示文件和管理目录 -- Part 3: 在RHEL7中如何管理用户和组 -- Part 4: 使用nano和vim管理命令/ 使用grep和正则表达式分析文本 -- Part 5: RHEL7的进程管理:启动，关机，以及其他介于二者之间的. -- Part 6: 使用 'Parted'和'SSM'来管理和加密系统存储 -- Part 7: 使用ACLs(访问控制表)并挂载 Samba /NFS 文件分享 -- Part 8: 加固SSH，设置主机名并开启网络服务 -- Part 9: 安装、配置和加固一个Web，FTP服务器 -- Part 10: Yum 包管理方式,使用Cron进行自动任务管理以及监控系统日志 -- Part 11: 使用FirewallD和Iptables设置防火墙，控制网络流量 -- Part 12: 使用Kickstart 自动安装RHEL 7 -- Part 13: RHEL7:什么是SeLinux?他的原理是什么? -- Part 14: 在RHEL7 中使用基于LDAP的权限控制 -- Part 15: RHEL7的虚拟化:KVM 和虚拟机管理 - -在第一章，我们讲解如何输入和运行正确的命令在终端或者Shell窗口，并且讲解如何找到、插入，以及使用系统文档 - -![RHCSA: Reviewing Essential Linux Commands – Part 1](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Reviewing-Essential-Linux-Commands.png) - -RHCSA：回顾必会的Linux命令 - 第一部分 - -#### 前提: #### - -至少你要熟悉如下命令 - -- [cd command][2] (改变目录) -- [ls command][3] (列举文件) -- [cp command][4] (复制文件) -- [mv command][5] (移动或重命名文件) -- [touch command][6] (创建一个新的文件或更新已存在文件的时间表) -- rm command (删除文件) -- mkdir command (创建目录) - -在这篇文章中你将会找到更多的关于如何更好的使用他们的正确用法和特殊用法. - -虽然没有严格的要求，但是作为讨论常用的Linux命令和方法,你应该安装RHEL7 来尝试使用文章中提到的命令.这将会使你学习起来更省力. - -- [红帽企业版Linux(RHEL)7 安装指南][7] - -### 使用Shell进行交互 ### -如果我们使用文本模式登陆Linux，我们就无法使用鼠标在默认的shell。另一方面，如果我们使用图形化界面登陆,我们将会通过启动一个终端来开启shell，无论那种方式，我们都会看到用户提示,并且我们可以开始输入并且执行命令(当按下Enter时，命令就会被执行) - - -当我们使用文本模式登陆Linux时， -命令是由两个部分组成的： - -- 命令本身 -- 参数 - -某些参数，称为选项（通常使用一个连字符区分）,改变了由其他参数定义的命令操作. - -命令的类型可以帮助我们识别某一个特定的命令是由shell内建的还是由一个单独的包提供。这样的区别在于我们能够找到更多关于该信息的命令,对shell内置的命令，我们需要看shell的ManPage，如果是其他提供的，我们需要看它自己的ManPage. - -![Check Shell built in Commands](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Check-shell-built-in-Commands.png) - -检查Shell的内建命令 - -在上面的例子中， cd 和 type 是shell内建的命令，top和 less 是由其他的二进制文件提供的(在这种情况下，type将返回命令的位置) -其他的内建命令 - -- [echo command][8]: 展示字符串 -- [pwd command][9]: 输出当前的工作目录 - -![More Built in Shell Commands](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/More-Built-in-Shell-Commands.png) - -更多内建函数 - -**exec 命令** - -运行我们指定的外部程序。请注意，最好是只输入我们想要运行的程序的名字，不过exec命令有一个特殊的特性:使用旧的shell运行，而不是创建新的进程，可以作为子请求的验证. - - # ps -ef | grep [shell 进程的PID] - -当新的进程注销，Shell也随之注销,运行 exec top 然后按下 q键来退出top，你会注意到shell 会话会结束,如下面的屏幕录像展示的那样: - -注：youtube视频 - - -**export 命令** - -输出之后执行的命令的环境的变量 - -**history 命令** - -展示数行之前的历史命令.在感叹号前输入命令编号可以再次执行这个命令.如果我们需要编辑历史列表中的命令,我们可以按下 Ctrl + r 并输入与命令相关的第一个字符. -当我们看到的命令自动补全，我们可以根据我们目前的需要来编辑它： - -注：youtube视频 - - -命令列表会保存在一个叫 .bash_history的文件里.history命令是一个非常有用的用于减少输入次数的工具，特别是进行命令行编辑的时候.默认情况下，bash保留最后输入的500个命令，不过可以通过修改 HISTSIZE 环境变量来增加: - - -![Linux history Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-history-Command.png) - -Linux history 命令 - -但上述变化，在我们的下一次启动不会保留。为了保持HISTSIZE变量的变化，我们需要通过手工修改文件编辑： - - # 设置history请看 HISTSIZE 和 HISTFILESIZE 在 bash(1)的文档 - HISTSIZE=1000 - -**重要**: 我们的更改不会生效，除非我们重启了系统 - -**alias 命令** -没有参数或使用-p参数将会以 名称=值的标准形式输出alias 列表.当提供了参数时，一个alias 将被定义给给定的命令和值 - -使用alias ，我们可以创建我们自己的命令，或修改现有的命令，包括需要的参数.举个例子，假设我们想别名 ls 到 ls –color=auto ，这样就可以使用不同颜色输出文件、目录、链接 - - - # alias ls='ls --color=auto' - -![Linux alias Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-alias-Command.png) - -Linux 别名命令 - -**Note**: 你可以给你的新命令起任何的名字，并且附上足够多的使用单引号分割的参数，但是这样的情况下你要用分号区分开他们. - - # alias myNewCommand='cd /usr/bin; ls; cd; clear' - -**exit 命令** - -Exit和logout命令都是退出shell.exit命令退出所有的shell，logout命令只注销登陆的shell，其他的自动以文本模式启动的shell不算. - -如果我们对某个程序由疑问，我们可以看他的man Page，可以使用man命令调出它，额外的，还有一些重要的文件的手册页(inittab,fstab,hosts等等),库函数,shells,设备及其他功能 - -#### 举例: #### - -- man uname (输出系统信息，如内核名称、处理器、操作系统类型、架构等). -- man inittab (初始化守护设置). - -另外一个重要的信息的来源就是info命令提供的,info命令常常被用来读取信息文件.这些文件往往比manpage 提供更多信息.通过info 关键词调用某个命令的信息 - - # info ls - # info cut - - -另外，在/usr/share/doc 文件夹包含了大量的子目录，里面可以找到大量的文档.他们包含文本文件或其他友好的格式. -确保你使用这三种方法去查找命令的信息。重点关注每个命令文档中介绍的详细的语法 - -**使用expand命令把tabs转换为空格** - -有时候文本文档包含了tabs但是程序无法很好的处理的tabs.或者我们只是简单的希望将tabs转换成空格.这就是为什么expand (GNU核心组件提供)工具出现, - -举个例子,给我们一个文件 NumberList.txt，让我们使用expand处理它，将tabs转换为一个空格.并且以标准形式输出. - - # expand --tabs=1 NumbersList.txt - -![Linux expand Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-expand-Command.png) - -Linux expand 命令 - -unexpand命令可以实现相反的功能(将空格转为tab) - -**使用head输出文件首行及使用tail输出文件尾行** - -通常情况下，head命令后跟着文件名时，将会输出该文件的前十行，我们可以通过 -n 参数来自定义具体的行数。 - - # head -n3 /etc/passwd - # tail -n3 /etc/passwd - -![Linux head and tail Command](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Linux-head-and-tail-Command.png) - -Linux 的 head 和 tail 命令 - -tail 最有意思的一个特性就是能够展现信息(最后一行)就像我们输入文件(tail -f my.log，一行一行的，就像我们在观察它一样。)这在我们监控一个持续增加的日志文件时非常有用 - -更多: [Manage Files Effectively using head and tail Commands][10] - -**使用paste合并文本文件** -paste命令一行一行的合并文件，默认会以tab来区分每一行,或者其他你自定义的分行方式.(下面的例子就是输出使用等号划分行的文件). - # paste -d= file1 file2 - -![Merge Files in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Merge-Files-in-Linux-with-paste-command.png) - -Merge Files in Linux - -**使用split命令将文件分块** - -split 命令常常用于把一个文件切割成两个或多个文由我们自定义的前缀命名的件文件.这些文件可以通过大小、区块、行数，生成的文件会有一个数字或字母的后缀.在下面的例子中，我们将切割bash.pdf ，每个文件50KB (-b 50KB) ,使用命名后缀 (-d): - - # split -b 50KB -d bash.pdf bash_ - -![Split Files in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Split-Files-in-Linux-with-split-command.png) - -在Linux下划分文件 - -你可以使用如下命令来合并这些文件，生成源文件: - - # cat bash_00 bash_01 bash_02 bash_03 bash_04 bash_05 > bash.pdf - -**使用tr命令改变字符** - -tr 命令多用于变化（改变）一个一个的字符活使用字符范围.和之前一样,下面的实例我们江使用同样的文件file2，我们将实习： - -- 小写字母 o 变成大写 -- 所有的小写字母都变成大写字母 - - # cat file2 | tr o O - # cat file2 | tr [a-z] [A-Z] - -![Translate Characters in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Translate-characters-in-Linux-with-tr-command.png) - -在Linux中替换文字 - -**使用uniq和sort检查或删除重复的文字** - -uniq命令可以帮我们查出或删除文件中的重复的行,默认会写出到stdout.我们应当注意， uniq 只能查出相邻的两个相同的单纯，所以， uniq 往往和sort 一起使用(sort一般用于对文本文件的内容进行排序) - - -默认的，sort 以第一个参数(使用空格区分)为关键字.想要定义特殊的关键字，我们需要使用 -k参数，请注意如何使用sort 和uniq输出我们想要的字段，具体可以看下面的例子 - - # cat file3 - # sort file3 | uniq - # sort -k2 file3 | uniq - # sort -k3 file3 | uniq - -![删除文件中重复的行](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Remove-Duplicate-Lines-in-file.png) - -删除文件中重复的行 - -**从文件中提取文本的命令** - -Cut命令基于字节(-b),字符(-c),或者区块(-f)从stdin活文件中提取到的部分将会以标准的形式展现在屏幕上 - -当我们使用区块切割时，默认的分隔符是一个tab，不过你可以通过 -d 参数来自定义分隔符. - - # cut -d: -f1,3 /etc/passwd # 这个例子提取了第一块和第三块的文本 - # cut -d: -f2-4 /etc/passwd # 这个例子提取了第一块到第三块的文本 - -![从文件中提取文本](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Extract-Text-from-a-file.png) - -从文件中提取文本 - - -注意，上方的两个输出的结果是十分简洁的。 - -**使用fmt命令重新格式化文件** - -fmt 被用于去“清理”有大量内容或行的文件,或者有很多缩进的文件.新的锻炼格式每行不会超过75个字符款，你能改变这个设定通过 -w(width 宽度)参数，它可以设置行宽为一个特定的数值 - -举个例子，让我们看看当我们用fmt显示定宽为100个字符的时候的文件/etc/passwd 时会发生什么.再来一次，输出值变得更加简洁. - - # fmt -w100 /etc/passwd - -![File Reformatting in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/File-Reformatting-in-Linux-with-fmt-command.png) - -Linux文件重新格式化 - -**使用pr命令格式化打印内容** - -pr 分页并且在列中展示一个或多个用于打印的文件. 换句话说，使用pr格式化一个文件使他打印出来时看起来更好.举个例子，下面这个命令 - - # ls -a /etc | pr -n --columns=3 -h "Files in /etc" - -以一个友好的排版方式(3列)输出/etc下的文件,自定义了页眉(通过 -h 选项实现),行号(-n) - -![File Formatting in Linux](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/File-Formatting-in-Linux-with-pr-command.png) - -Linux的文件格式 - -### 总结 ### - -在这篇文章中，我们已经讨论了如何在Shell或终端以正确的语法输入和执行命令，并解释如何找到，检查和使用系统文档。正如你看到的一样简单，这就是你成为RHCSA的第一大步 - -如果你想添加一些其他的你经常使用的能够有效帮你完成你的日常工作的基础命令,并为分享他们而感到自豪,请在下方留言.也欢迎提出问题.我们期待您的回复. - - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-reviewing-essential-commands-system-documentation/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[译者ID](https://github.com/译者ID) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:https://www.redhat.com/en/services/certification/rhcsa -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/cd-command-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/ls-command-interview-questions/ -[4]:http://www.tecmint.com/advanced-copy-command-shows-progress-bar-while-copying-files/ -[5]:http://www.tecmint.com/rename-multiple-files-in-linux/ -[6]:http://www.tecmint.com/8-pratical-examples-of-linux-touch-command/ -[7]:http://www.tecmint.com/redhat-enterprise-linux-7-installation/ -[8]:http://www.tecmint.com/echo-command-in-linux/ -[9]:http://www.tecmint.com/pwd-command-examples/ -[10]:http://www.tecmint.com/view-contents-of-file-in-linux/ diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 04--Editing Text Files with Nano and Vim or Analyzing text with grep and regexps.md b/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 04--Editing Text Files with Nano and Vim or Analyzing text with grep and regexps.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8438ec0351..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 04--Editing Text Files with Nano and Vim or Analyzing text with grep and regexps.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,258 +0,0 @@ -RHCSA 系列：使用 Nano 和 Vim 编辑文本文件/使用 grep 和 regexps 分析文本 – Part 4 -================================================================================ -作为系统管理员的日常职责的一部分，每个系统管理员都必须处理文本文件，这包括编辑现存文件(大多可能是配置文件)，或创建新的文件。有这样一个说法，假如你想在 Linux 世界中挑起一场圣战，你可以询问系统管理员们，什么是他们最喜爱的编辑器以及为什么。在这篇文章中，我们并不打算那样做，但我们将向你呈现一些技巧，这些技巧对使用两款在 RHEL 7 中最为常用的文本编辑器: nano(由于其简单和易用，特别是对于新手来说) 和 vi/m(由于其自身的几个特色使得它不仅仅是一个简单的编辑器)来说都大有裨益。我确信你可以找到更多的理由来使用其中的一个或另一个，或许其他的一些编辑器如 emacs 或 pico。这完全取决于你。 - -![学习 Nano 和 vi 编辑器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Learn-Nano-and-vi-Editors.png) - -RHCSA: 使用 Nano 和 Vim 编辑文本文件 – Part 4 - -### 使用 Nano 编辑器来编辑文件 ### - -要启动 nano，你可以在命令提示符下输入 `nano`，或选择性地跟上一个文件名(在这种情况下，若文件存在，它将在编辑模式中被打开)。若文件不存在，或我们省略了文件名， nano 也将在 编辑模式下开启，但将为我们开启一个空白屏以便开始输入： - -![Nano 编辑器](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Nano-Editor.png) - -Nano 编辑器 - -正如你在上一张图片中所见的那样， nano 在屏幕的底部呈现出一些功能，它们可以通过暗指的快捷键来触发(^,即插入记号，代指 Ctrl 键)。它们中的一些是： - -- Ctrl + G: 触发一个帮助菜单，带有一个关于功能和相应的描述的完整列表； -- Ctrl + X: 离开当前文件，假如更改没有被保存，则它们将被丢弃； -- Ctrl + R: 通过指定一个完整的文件路径，让你选择一个文件来将该文件的内容插入到当前文件中； - -![Nano 编辑器帮助菜单](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Nano-Help.png) - -Nano 编辑器帮助菜单 - -- Ctrl + O: 保存更改到一个文件。它将让你用一个与源文件相同或不同的名称来保存该文件，然后按 Enter 键来确认。 - -![Nano 编辑器保存更改模式](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Nano-Save-Changes.png) - -Nano 编辑器的保存更改模式 - -- Ctrl + X: 离开当前文件，假如更改没有被保存，则它们将被丢弃； -- Ctrl + R: 通过指定一个完整的文件路径，让你选择一个文件来将该文件的内容插入到当前文件中； - -![Nano: 插入文件内容到主文件中](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Insert-File-Content.png) - -Nano: 插入文件内容到主文件中 - -上图的操作将把 `/etc/passwd` 的内容插入到当前文件中。 - -- Ctrl + K: 剪切当前行； -- Ctrl + U: 粘贴； -- Ctrl + C: 取消当前的操作并返回先前的屏幕； - -为了轻松地在打开的文件中浏览， nano 提供了下面的功能： - -- Ctrl + F 和 Ctrl + B 分别先前或向后移动光标；而 Ctrl + P 和 Ctrl + N 则分别向上或向下移动一行，功能与箭头键相同； -- Ctrl + space 和 Alt + space 分别向前或向后移动一个单词； - -最后， - -- 假如你想将光标移动到文档中的特定位置，使用 Ctrl + _ (下划线) 并接着输入 X,Y 将准确地带你到 第 X 行，第 Y 列。 - -![在 nano 中定位到具体的行，列](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Column-Numbers.png) - -在 nano 中定位到具体的行和列 - -上面的例子将带你到当前文档的第 15 行，第 14 列。 - -假如你可以回忆起你早期的 Linux 岁月，特别是当你刚从 Windows 迁移到 Linux 中，你就可能会同意：对于一个新手来说，使用 nano 来开始学习是最好的方式。 - -### 使用 Vim 编辑器来编辑文件 ### - - -Vim 是 vi 的加强版本，它是 Linux 中一个著名的文本编辑器，可在所有兼容 POSIX 的 *nix 系统中获取到，例如在 RHEL 7 中。假如你有机会并可以安装 Vim，请继续；假如不能，这篇文章中的大多数(若不是全部)的提示也应该可以正常工作。 - -Vim 的一个出众的特点是可以在多个不同的模式中进行操作： - -- 命令模式将允许你在文件中跳转和输入命令，这些命令是由一个或多个字母组成的简洁且对大小写敏感的组合。假如你想重复执行某个命令特定次，你可以在这个命令前加上需要重复的次数(这个规则只有极少数例外)。例如， yy(或 Y，yank 的缩写)可以复制整个当前行，而 4yy(或 4Y)则复制整个当前行到接着的 3 行(总共 4 行)。 -- 在 ex 模式中，你可以操作文件(包括保存当前文件和运行外部的程序或命令)。要进入 ex 模式，你必须在命令模式前(或其他词前，Esc + ：)输入一个冒号(:)，再直接跟上你想使用的 ex 模式命令的名称。 -- 对于插入模式，可以输入字母 i 进入，我们只需要输入文字即可。大多数的键击结果都将出现在屏幕中的文本中。 -- 我们总是可以通过敲击 Esc 键来进入命令模式(无论我们正工作在哪个模式下)。 - -现在，让我们看看如何在 vim 中执行在上一节列举的针对 nano 的相同的操作。不要忘记敲击 Enter 键来确认 vim 命令。 - -为了从命令行中获取 vim 的完整手册，在命令模式下键入 `:help` 并敲击 Enter 键： - -![vim 编辑器帮助菜单](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/vim-Help-Menu.png) - -vim 编辑器帮助菜单 - -上面的小节呈现出一个目录列表，而定义过的小节则主要关注 Vim 的特定话题。要浏览某一个小节，可以将光标放到它的上面，然后按 Ctrl + ] (闭方括号)。注意，底部的小节展示的是当前文件的内容。 - -1. 要保存更改到文件，在命令模式中运行下面命令中的任意一个，就可以达到这个目的： - -``` -:wq! -:x! -ZZ (是的，两个 ZZ,前面无需添加冒号) -``` - -2. 要离开并丢弃更改，使用 `:q!`。这个命令也将允许你离开上面描述过的帮助菜单，并返回到命令模式中的当前文件。 - -3. 剪切 N 行：在命令模式中键入 `Ndd`。 - -4. 复制 M 行：在命令模式中键入 `Myy`。 - -5. 粘贴先前剪贴或复制过的行：在命令模式中按 `P`键。 - -6. 要插入另一个文件的内容到当前文件： - - :r filename - -例如，插入 `/etc/fstab` 的内容，可以这样做： - -[在 vi 编辑器中插入文件的内容](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Insert-Content-vi-Editor.png) - -在 vi 编辑器中插入文件的内容 - -7. 插入一个命名的输出到当前文档： - - :r! command - -例如，要在光标所在的当前位置后面插入日期和时间： - -![在 vi 编辑器中插入时间和日期](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Insert-Time-and-Date-in-vi-Editor.png) - -在 vi 编辑器中插入时间和日期 - -在另一篇我写的文章中，([LFCS 系列的 Part 2][1])，我更加详细地解释了在 vim 中可用的键盘快捷键和功能。或许你可以参考那个教程来查看如何使用这个强大的文本编辑器的更深入的例子。 - -### 使用 Grep 和正则表达式来分析文本 ### - -到现在为止，你已经学习了如何使用 nano 或 vim 创建和编辑文件。打个比方说，假如你成为了一个文本编辑器忍者 – 那又怎样呢？ 在其他事情上，你也需要知道如何在文本中搜索正则表达式。 - -正则表达式(也称为 "regex" 或 "regexp") 是一种识别一个特定文本字符串或模式的方式，使得一个程序可以将这个模式和任意的文本字符串相比较。尽管利用 grep 来使用正则表达式值得用一整篇文章来描述，这里就让我们复习一些基本的知识： - -**1. 最简单的正则表达式是一个由数字和字母构成的字符串(即，单词 "svm") 或两个(在使用两个字符串时，你可以使用 `|`(或) 操作符)：** - - # grep -Ei 'svm|vmx' /proc/cpuinfo - -上面命令的输出结果中若有这两个字符串之一的出现，则标志着你的处理器支持虚拟化: - -![正则表达式示例](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Regular-Expression-Example.png) - -正则表达式示例 - -**2. 第二种正则表达式是一个范围列表，由方括号包裹。** - -例如， `c[aeiou]t` 匹配字符串 cat,cet,cit,cot 和 cut，而 `[a-z]` 和 `[0-9]` 则相应地匹配小写字母或十进制数字。假如你想重复正则表达式 X 次，在正则表达式的后面立即输入 `{X}`即可。 - -例如，让我们从 `/etc/fstab` 中析出存储设备的 UUID： - - # grep -Ei '[0-9a-f]{8}-([0-9a-f]{4}-){3}[0-9a-f]{12}' -o /etc/fstab - -![在 Linux 中从一个文件中析出字符串](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Extract-String-from-a-File.png) - -从一个文件中析出字符串 - -方括号中的第一个表达式 `[0-9a-f]` 被用来表示小写的十六进制字符，`{8}`是一个量词，暗示前面匹配的字符串应该重复的次数(在一个 UUID 中的开头序列是一个 8 个字符长的十六进制字符串)。 - -在圆括号中，量词 `{4}`和连字符暗示下一个序列是一个 4 个字符长的十六进制字符串，接着的量词 `({3})`表示前面的表达式要重复 3 次。 - -最后，在 UUID 中的最后一个 12 个字符长的十六进制字符串可以由 `[0-9a-f]{12}` 取得， `-o` 选项表示只打印出在 `/etc/fstab`中匹配行中的匹配的(非空)部分。 - -**3. POSIX 字符类 ** - -注：表格 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
字符类匹配 …
 [[:alnum:]] 任意字母或数字 [a-zA-Z0-9]
 [[:alpha:]] 任意字母 [a-zA-Z]
 [[:blank:]] 空格或制表符
 [[:cntrl:]] 任意控制字符 (ASCII 码的 0 至 32)
 [[:digit:]] 任意数字 [0-9]
 [[:graph:]] 任意可见字符
 [[:lower:]] 任意小写字母 [a-z]
 [[:print:]] 任意非控制字符 -
 [[:space:]] 任意空格
 [[:punct:]] 任意标点字符
 [[:upper:]] 任意大写字母 [A-Z]
 [[:xdigit:]] 任意十六进制数字 [0-9a-fA-F]
 [:word:] 任意字母，数字和下划线 [a-zA-Z0-9_]
- -例如，我们可能会对查找已添加到我们系统中给真实用户的 UID 和 GID(参考这个系列的 [Part 2][2]来回忆起这些知识)感兴趣。那么，我们将在 `/etc/passwd` 文件中查找 4 个字符长的序列： - - # grep -Ei [[:digit:]]{4} /etc/passwd - -![在文件中查找一个字符串](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Search-For-String-in-File.png) - -在文件中查找一个字符串 - -上面的示例可能不是真实世界中使用正则表达式的最好案例，但它清晰地启发了我们如何使用 POSIX 字符类来使用 grep 分析文本。 - -### 总结 ### - - -在这篇文章中，我们已经提供了一些技巧来最大地利用针对命令行用户的两个文本编辑器 nano 和 vim，这两个工具都有相关的扩展文档可供阅读，你可以分别查询它们的官方网站(链接在下面给出)以及使用这个系列中的 [Part 1][3] 给出的建议。 - -#### 参考文件链接 #### - -- [http://www.nano-editor.org/][4] -- [http://www.vim.org/][5] - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-how-to-use-nano-vi-editors/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/vi-editor-usage/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/file-and-directory-management-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-reviewing-essential-commands-system-documentation/ -[4]:http://www.nano-editor.org/ -[5]:http://www.vim.org/ diff --git a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 05--Process Management in RHEL 7--Boot Shutdown and Everything in Between.md b/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 05--Process Management in RHEL 7--Boot Shutdown and Everything in Between.md deleted file mode 100644 index 91e2482e49..0000000000 --- a/translated/tech/RHCSA/RHCSA Series--Part 05--Process Management in RHEL 7--Boot Shutdown and Everything in Between.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,214 +0,0 @@ -RHECSA 系列：RHEL7 中的进程管理：开机，关机，以及两者之间的所有其他事项 – Part 5 -================================================================================ -我们将概括和简要地复习从你按开机按钮来打开你的 RHEL 7 服务器到呈现出命令行界面的登录屏幕之间所发生的所有事情，以此来作为这篇文章的开始。 - -![RHEL 7 开机过程](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/RHEL-7-Boot-Process.png) - -Linux 开机过程 - -**请注意：** - -1. 相同的基本原则也可以应用到其他的 Linux 发行版本中，但可能需要较小的更改，并且 -2. 下面的描述并不是旨在给出开机过程的一个详尽的解释，而只是介绍一些基础的东西 - -### Linux 开机过程 ### - -1.初始化 POST(加电自检)并执行硬件检查； - -2.当 POST 完成后，系统的控制权将移交给启动管理器的第一阶段，它存储在一个硬盘的引导扇区(对于使用 BIOS 和 MBR 的旧式的系统)或存储在一个专门的 (U)EFI 分区上。 - -3.启动管理器的第一阶段完成后，接着进入启动管理器的第二阶段，通常大多数使用的是 GRUB(GRand Unified Boot Loader 的简称)，它驻留在 `/boot` 中，反过来加载内核和驻留在 RAM 中的初始化文件系统(被称为 initramfs，它包含执行必要操作所需要的程序和二进制文件，以此来最终挂载真实的根文件系统)。 - -4.接着经历了闪屏过后，呈现在我们眼前的是类似下图的画面，它允许我们选择一个操作系统和内核来启动： - -![RHEL 7 开机屏幕](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/RHEL-7-Boot-Screen.png) - -启动菜单屏幕 - -5.然后内核对挂载到系统的硬件进行设置，一旦根文件系统被挂载，接着便启动 PID 为 1 的进程，反过来这个进程将初始化其他的进程并最终呈现给我们一个登录提示符界面。 - -注意：假如我们想在后面这样做(注：这句话我总感觉不通顺，不明白它的意思，希望改一下)，我们可以使用 [dmesg 命令][1](注:这篇文章已经翻译并发表了，链接是 https://linux.cn/article-3587-1.html )并使用这个系列里的上一篇文章中解释过的工具(注:即 grep)来过滤它的输出。 - -![登录屏幕和进程的 PID](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Login-Screen-Process-PID.png) - -登录屏幕和进程的 PID - -在上面的例子中，我们使用了众所周知的 `ps` 命令来显示在系统启动过程中的一系列当前进程的信息，它们的父进程(或者换句话说，就是那个开启这些进程的进程) 为 systemd(大多数现代的 Linux 发行版本已经切换到的系统和服务管理器)： - - # ps -o ppid,pid,uname,comm --ppid=1 - -记住 `-o`(为 -format 的简写)选项允许你以一个自定义的格式来显示 ps 的输出，以此来满足你的需求；这个自定义格式使用 man ps 里 STANDARD FORMAT SPECIFIERS 一节中的特定关键词。 - -另一个你想自定义 ps 的输出而不是使用其默认输出的情形是：当你需要找到引起 CPU 或内存消耗过多的那些进程，并按照下列方式来对它们进行排序时： - - # ps aux --sort=+pcpu # 以 %CPU 来排序(增序) - # ps aux --sort=-pcpu # 以 %CPU 来排序(降序) - # ps aux --sort=+pmem # 以 %MEM 来排序(增序) - # ps aux --sort=-pmem # 以 %MEM 来排序(降序) - # ps aux --sort=+pcpu,-pmem # 结合 %CPU (增序) 和 %MEM (降序)来排列 - -![http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ps-command-output.png](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ps-command-output.png) - -自定义 ps 命令的输出 - -### systemd 的一个介绍 ### - -在 Linux 世界中，很少有决定能够比在主流的 Linux 发行版本中采用 systemd 引起更多的争论。systemd 的倡导者根据以下事实命名其主要的优势： - -另外请阅读: ['init' 和 'systemd' 背后的故事][2] - -1. 在系统启动期间，systemd 允许并发地启动更多的进程(相比于先前的 SysVinit，SysVinit 似乎总是表现得更慢，因为它一个接一个地启动进程，检查一个进程是否依赖于另一个进程，然后等待守护进程去开启可以开始的更多的服务)，并且 -2. 在一个运行着的系统中，它作为一个动态的资源管理器来工作。这样在开机期间，当一个服务被需要时，才启动它(以此来避免消耗系统资源)而不是在没有一个合理的原因的情况下启动额外的服务。 -3. 向后兼容 sysvinit 的脚本。 - -systemd 由 systemctl 工具控制，假如你带有 SysVinit 背景，你将会对以下的内容感到熟悉： - -- service 工具, 在旧一点的系统中，它被用来管理 SysVinit 脚本，以及 -- chkconfig 工具, 为系统服务升级和查询运行级别信息 -- shutdown, 你一定使用过几次来重启或关闭一个运行的系统。 - -下面的表格展示了使用传统的工具和 systemctl 之间的相似之处： - -注：表格 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Legacy toolSystemctl equivalentDescription
service name startsystemctl start nameStart name (where name is a service)
service name stopsystemctl stop nameStop name
service name condrestartsystemctl try-restart nameRestarts name (if it’s already running)
service name restartsystemctl restart nameRestarts name
service name reloadsystemctl reload nameReloads the configuration for name
service name statussystemctl status nameDisplays the current status of name
service –status-allsystemctlDisplays the status of all current services
chkconfig name onsystemctl enable nameEnable name to run on startup as specified in the unit file (the file to which the symlink points). The process of enabling or disabling a service to start automatically on boot consists in adding or removing symbolic links inside the /etc/systemd/system directory.
chkconfig name offsystemctl disable nameDisables name to run on startup as specified in the unit file (the file to which the symlink points)
chkconfig –list namesystemctl is-enabled nameVerify whether name (a specific service) is currently enabled
chkconfig –listsystemctl –type=serviceDisplays all services and tells whether they are enabled or disabled
shutdown -h nowsystemctl poweroffPower-off the machine (halt)
shutdown -r nowsystemctl rebootReboot the system
- -systemd 也引进了单元(它可能是一个服务，一个挂载点，一个设备或者一个网络套接字)和目标(它们定义了 systemd 如何去管理和同时开启几个相关的进程，并可认为它们与在基于 SysVinit 的系统中的运行级别等价,尽管事实上它们并不等价)。 - -### 总结归纳 ### - -其他与进程管理相关，但并不仅限于下面所列的功能的任务有： - -**1. 在考虑到系统资源的使用上，调整一个进程的执行优先级：** - -这是通过 `renice` 工具来完成的，它可以改变一个或多个正在运行着的进程的调度优先级。简单来说，调度优先级是一个允许内核(当前只支持 >= 2.6 的版本)根据某个给定进程被分配的执行优先级(即优先级，从 -20 到 19)来为其分配系统资源的功能。 - -`renice` 的基本语法如下： - - # renice [-n] priority [-gpu] identifier - -在上面的通用命令中，第一个参数是将要使用的优先级数值，而另一个参数可以解释为进程 ID(这是默认的设定)，进程组 ID，用户 ID 或者用户名。一个常规的用户(即除 root 以外的用户)只可以更改他或她所拥有的进程的调度优先级，并且只能增加优先级的层次(这意味着占用更少的系统资源)。 - -![在 Linux 中调整进程的优先级](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Process-Scheduling-Priority.png) - -进程调度优先级 - -**2. 按照需要杀死一个进程(或终止其正常执行)：** - -更精确地说，杀死一个进程指的是通过 [kill 或 pkill][3]命令给该进程发送一个信号，让它优雅地(SIGTERM=15)或立即(SIGKILL=9)结束它的执行。 - -这两个工具的不同之处在于前一个被用来终止一个特定的进程或一个进程组，而后一个则允许你在进程的名称和其他属性的基础上，执行相同的动作。 - -另外， pkill 与 pgrep 相捆绑，pgrep 提供将受影响的进程的 PID 给 pkill 来使用。例如，在运行下面的命令之前： - - # pkill -u gacanepa - -查看一眼由 gacanepa 所拥有的 PID 或许会带来点帮助： - - # pgrep -l -u gacanepa - -![找到用户拥有的 PID](http://www.tecmint.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Find-PIDs-of-User.png) - -找到用户拥有的 PID - -默认情况下，kill 和 pkiill 都发送 SIGTERM 信号给进程，如我们上面提到的那样，这个信号可以被忽略(即该进程可能会终止其自身的执行或者不终止)，所以当你因一个合理的理由要真正地停止一个运行着的进程，则你将需要在命令行中带上特定的 SIGKILL 信号： - - # kill -9 identifier # 杀死一个进程或一个进程组 - # kill -s SIGNAL identifier # 同上 - # pkill -s SIGNAL identifier # 通过名称或其他属性来杀死一个进程 - -### 结论 ### - -在这篇文章中，我们解释了在 RHEL 7 系统中，有关开机启动过程的基本知识，并分析了一些可用的工具来帮助你通过使用一般的程序和 systemd 特有的命令来管理进程。 - -请注意，这个列表并不旨在涵盖有关这个话题的所有花哨的工具，请随意使用下面的评论栏来添加你自已钟爱的工具和命令。同时欢迎你的提问和其他的评论。 - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -via: http://www.tecmint.com/rhcsa-exam-boot-process-and-process-management/ - -作者：[Gabriel Cánepa][a] -译者：[FSSlc](https://github.com/FSSlc) -校对：[校对者ID](https://github.com/校对者ID) - -本文由 [LCTT](https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject) 原创翻译，[Linux中国](https://linux.cn/) 荣誉推出 - -[a]:http://www.tecmint.com/author/gacanepa/ -[1]:http://www.tecmint.com/dmesg-commands/ -[2]:http://www.tecmint.com/systemd-replaces-init-in-linux/ -[3]:http://www.tecmint.com/how-to-kill-a-process-in-linux/